4r 


A  MANUAL 


IT 


Containin g  the  Graded  Course 
of  Study  for  the  Elementary 


Schools  of  West  Virginia. 


PREPARED  BY  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 
AND  ISSUED  BY  THE 

Department  of  Free  Schools 

M.  P.  SHAWKEY,  Statje  SrrPKKiNarENDENT. 

1912 


A  MANUAL 

CONTAINING 

The  Graded  Course  of  Study 

 FOR  THE  

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

— OF — 

WEST  VIRGINIA 


PREPARED  BY  THE 

STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

AND  ISSUED  BY  THE 

STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOLS 
M.  P.  Shawkey,  State  Superintendent. 


ISSUED  1909— liEVISED  1912 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

M.  P.  SHAWKEY,  President,  Charleston.  J.  N.  DEAHL,  Morgantown. 

L.  B.  HILL,  Secretary,  Middlbbourne.  L.  W.  BURNS,  Montgomery. 

H.  B.  WORK,  Wheeling.  C.  R.  MURRAY  Williamson. 


UNION  PUBLISHING  CO.,  CHARLESTON,  W.  VA. 


37  5 


OJ 
a 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The  authors  of  this  Course  of  Study  desire  to  express  to  the  fol- 
lowing persons  their  appreciation  for  material  and  helpful  sugges- 
tions : 

Dean  E.  D.  Sanderson  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Morgantown. 
Prof.  A.  W.  Nolan,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana. 
SuPT.  H.  F.  Fleshman,  of  the  Hinton  Public  Schools. 
-   Mrs.  Blanche  Ruffner  Carr,  formerly  Supervisor  of  Music,  Char- 
leston Public  Schools. 
Miss  Sarah  E.  Griswold,  of  the  Chicago  Normal  School. 
Miss  Lucy  M.  Doyle,  of  the  Parker  Practice  School,  Chicago. 
Miss  Eleanor  Wright,  of  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University. 
Miss  Rose  Hunter,  of  the  Wheeling  Public  Schools. 


La 


o 


6 


waste  in  teaching  spelling  as  a  distinct  and  separate  subject.  The 
child  should  learn  to  spell  in  connection  with  other  subjects.  In 
language  and  written  composition  and  written  work  of  all  kinds 
the  child  should  learn  to  spell.  Only  occasionally  and  with  care 
should  words  be  singled  out,  studied,  and  spelled  in.  lists.  When 
the  child  begins  the  systematic  study  of  history  then  common  school 
geography  as  a  distinct  subject  should  end,  and  it  should  be  studied 
in  the  future  in  connection  with  history  and  other  subjects.  State 
history  should  not  be  taught  as  a  distinct  subject,  but  in  connection 
with  United  States  history,  civics,  and  the  geography  of  West  Vir- 
ginia. It  is  very  doubtful  whether  civics  should  have  a  distinct 
place  in  the  daily  program.  It  can  be  taught  more  successfully  in 
connection  with  other  subjects.  Book-keeping  in  the  elementary 
schools  should  be  taught  in  connection  with  arithmetic. 

OUTLINE  OF  STUDIES. 

First  Year  Reading  (History  and  Literature.) 

Nature  Study. 

Drawing  and  Construction  Work. 
Motion  Songs  and  Games. 
•  Writing. 

Second  Year  Reading  (History  and  Literature.) 

Nature  Study. 

Drawing  and  Construction  Work. 
Motion  Songs  and  Games. 
Numbers. 
Writing. 

Third  Year  Reading  (History  and  Literatu|"e. ) 

Nature  Study. 

Drawing  and  Construction  Work. 

Numbers. 

Language. 

Writing. 

Fourtli  Year  Reading  (History  and  Literature.) 

Nature  Study  and  Hygiene. 

Arithmetic. 

Language. 

Geography. 

Spelling. 

Writing. 


7 


Fifth  Year  Reading  and  Literature. 

Nature  Study  and  Hygiene. 

Arithmetic. 

Language. 

Geography. 

History. 

Spelling. 

Writing. 

Sixth  Year  Literature. 

Nature  Study  and  Hygiene.  • 

Arithmetic. 

Language. 

History. 

Spelling. 

Writing. 

Seventh  Year  Literature. 

Agriculture. 

Arithmetic  and  Book-keeping. 

Language  and  Grammar. 

Geography. 

History. 

Spelling. 

Writing. 

Eighth  Year  Literature. 

Agriculture. 

Arithmetic  and  Book-keeping. 
Language  and  Grammar. 
History. 
Civics. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene. 
Writing. 

RURAL  SCHOOL  EQUIPMENT. 

We  will  assume  that  your  school  has  ample  grounds,  a  good 
house  with  outbuildings,  pure  drinking  water  within  easy  reach^ 
suitable  desks  for  the  pupils  and  a  desk  and  a  chair  for  the  teacher, 
and  that  it  has  suitable  means  of  heating  and  ventilating  the  room^ 
that  fuel,  chalk,  erasers  and  brooms  are  furnished.  This  list  com- 
pletes what  boards  are  accustomed  to  think  necessary  equipment 
for  a  school.    Some  schools  do  not  fare  even  so  well  as  this.  But 


8 


granted  this  much,  what  can  the  teacher  do  towards  better  equip- 
ment of  her  school? 

We  cannot  put  too  much  emphasis  upon  school  equipment.  If 
a  factory  would  be  content  with  such  bare  equipment  as  in  the 
school  described  above,  it  would  not  be  very  efficient.  In  fact  its 
finer  efficiency  depends  upon  the  things  not  mentioned  in  the  above. 
Without  more  equipment  than  is  listed  above,  the  class  exercises 
will  be  largely  of  the  textbook  questions  and  answers.  No  teacher 
can  do  her  best  work  without  the  necessary  tools. 

The  library  should  be  a  part  of  every  school's  equipment.  At 
first,  it  should  consist  of  the  most  usable  books,  supplementary  read- 
ers, books  of  historical  and  geographical  references,  a  dictionary, 
and  at  least  one  book  of  general  information,  even  if  it  cannot  be 
more  than  the  World  Almanac.  Later,  books  of  more  general  read- 
ing can  be  added.  A  lot  of  money  has  been  wasted  by  teachers  who 
did  not  know  what  books  to  buy.  Once  in  a  while  you  find  in  the 
libraries  such  trash  as  "Ten  Nights  in  a  Bar-room."  If  teachers 
will  follow  suggestions  in  the  Library  Day  Book,  prepared  by  the 
Department  of  Schools,  they  will  save  money  and  secure  better 
books.  It  is  of  small  worth  to  buy  books  unless  they  can  be  kept  in 
a  case.  This  case  need  not  be  expensive.  In  nearly  every  school 
may  be  found  one  or  more  boys  who  will  gladly  make  a  library  case, 
or  the  neighborhood  carpenter  will  make  a  case  at  small  cost. 

There  should  be  several  wall-maps,  a  globe  and  a  primary  reading 
chart. 

Boards  of  education  can  easily  be  persuaded  to  supply  these  and 
help  supply  a  library  if  the  matter  is  brought  to  their  attention  in 
the  right  way. 

The  sand  table  is  inexpensive  and  yet  its  possibilities  are  limited 
only  by  the  limitations  of  the  teacher.  Anyone  who  can  secure  a 
few  feet  of  lumber  and  can  use  the  saw  and  hatchet  can  make  a 
sand  table.  Already  a  number  of  rural  teachers  are  using  the  sand 
table  with  fine  results. 

To  set  the  small  pupils  to  cutting  paper  may  set  a-wagging  many 
tongues  of  the  community  who  have  been  used  to  A.  B.  C.  methods 
of  teaching,  but  if  a  teacher  is  skillful  she  will  be  able  to  secure  a 
half  dozen  pairs  of  scissors  and  thus  make  it  possible  for  the  little 
ones  to  forget  many  of  their  troubles  while  cutting  paper.  Are 
you  afraid  to  try  it  ? 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  suggestions  that  might  be  made.  The 


9 

finer  things  of  the  schools  can  be  done  by  means  of  equipment  not 
usually  furnished  by  boards  of  education.  It  will  all  depend  upon 
the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  teacher.  The  catalog  of  A.  Flanagan 
&  Company,  of  Chicago,  will  be  suggestive  to  teachers,  since  it 
makes  a  specialty  of  such  equipment.  Any  good  book  on  methods  of 
teaching  will  aid  the  teacher.  The  time  has  come  when  merely 
assigning  lessons  and  hearing  recitations  out  of  books  will  not  do. 
Such  methods  have  never  done  well.  ' 

THE  DECORATION  OF  SCHOOL  ROOMS. 

Very  many  children,  during  their  school  lives,  pass  from  5000 
to  8000  hours  within  the  school  room.  What  effect,  then,  the  mere 
physical  appearance  of  the  school  room  interior  may  have  upon  the 
child  is  certainly  worthy  of  consideration,  though  to  that  effect 
very  little  thought  has  usually  been  given.  It  is  true  that  in  many 
of  our  fine  new  city  buildings  the  matter  is  being  treated  as  care- 
fully as  are  the  other  points  that  pertain  to  the  well-being  of  the 
child,  but  in  the  great  number  of  smaller  buildings,  in  the  country 
and  in  little  towns  the  subject  is  practically  ignored. 

To  the  many  earnest  and  faithful  West  Virginia  teachers  who, 
by  their  labors  in  securing  school  libraries,  in  beautifying  school 
grounds,  and  similar  endeavors,  have  shown  their  genuine  interest 
and  oftentimes  a  real  missionary  spirit  and  devotion,  these  words 
are  written,  in  the  hope  that  they  may  prove  of  some  value  for  sug- 
gestion and  guidance  to  such  as  may  undertake  some  activities  along 
this  extremely  important  line.  For  it  is  not  likely  that  much 
of  this  work  will  be  done  by  the  Board  of  Education,  upon  whose 
already  overburdened  shoulders  the  responsibility  really  rests.  In 
most  instances,  probably,  whatever  is  done  will  be  another  mark  of 
the  enthusiasm,  the  industry  and  patience  of  some  humble  and 
devoted  teacher. 

The  Walls.. 

An  uncoated,  plastered  wall  is  not  only  an  unbecoming  and  un- 
attractive thing  to  look  at,  but  is  also  an  actual  source  of  injury  to 
the  eye.  Practically  nowhere  in  Nature,  do  we  find  such  an  environ- 
ment facing  us.  Physicians  are  of  the  opinion  that  its  strong  glare 
on  the  eye  for  a  long  time  is  a  source  of  serious  eye  strain,  with 
accompanying  nervousness  and  restlessness.  In  our  homes  we 
usually  strive  to  cover  the  plastered  wall  with  some  appropriate 
color. 


10 


The  walls  made  of  wood  ceiling,  which  are  found  in  so  many  of 
our  school  houses,  soon  darken  by  the  natural  change  of  the  wood, 
so  that  they  are  perhaps  less  harmful  to  the  eye,  but  on  the  other 
hand  are  even  more  ugly  and  unsightly  than  the  plastered  wall. 
The  plastered  wall  may  be  relieved  somewhat  by  pictures  or  other 
decorations,  but  the  wooden  wall  is  likely  to  look  the  worse  for 
these. 

For  the  plastered  wall  tinted  preparations  of  the  nature  of  the 
one  in  common  uSe,  called  Alabastine,  are  not  expensive,  are  quite 
durable,  and  come  in  an  excellent  range  and  variety  of  shades. 
For  the  wood  it  is  better  to  use  some  of  the  so-called  * '  flat ' '  interior 
paints,  that  is,  paints  with  a  dull  rather  than  a  glo&s  surface.  These 
are  more  expensive  than  the  washes,  such  as  the  Alabastine,  but 
they  have  the  advantage  that  when  they  become  soiled  they  can  be 
sponged  off  and  cleansed. 

In  the  choice  of  colors  both  artists  and  physicians  are  pretty  well 
agreed  as  to  what  colors  are  most  suitable.  It  is  a  physiological  fact 
that  the  shades  towards  the  red  end  of  the  color  spectrum  are  more 
irritating  to  the  eye  than  those  near  the  center  of  the  spectrum. 
Therefore  we  should  avoid  such  colors  as  yellow,  orange  and  red. 
The  greens,  of  which  there  is  a  wonderful  range  of  tints,  are  both 
artistic,  and  soothing  to  the  eye.  Through  countless  ages  our 
eyes  have  been  getting  accustomed  to  the  various  shades  of  green 
in  the  vegetation  that  surrounds  us  out  of  doors.  Some  buffs  and 
light  browns  and  some  light  shades  of  blue  may  do  for  certain 
rooms.  Suggestions  for  color  schemes  will  be  found  in  the  cards  and, 
other  advertising  matter  issued  by  paint  manufacturers,  but  where 
the  teacher,  with  whatever  assistance  can  be  secured,  undertakes  to 
put  on  a  coat  of  paint  or  other  coating  a  single  tint  properly  selected 
will  do  very  well. 

Pictures. 

A  whole  book  would  not  more  than  suffice  to  treat  adequately  the 
subject  of  the  pictures  in  the  school  room.  A  few  of  the  chapters 
of  Burrage  &  Bailey's  School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  treat  of 
the  subject  and  any  teacher  having  access  to  the  book  would  do  well 
to  read  it.   Some  general  suggestions  only  can  be  given  here. 

The  cheap,  highly  colored  pictures  of  many  kinds  that  are  dis- 
tributed free  by  commercial  firms  and  companies  for  advertising 
purposes  are  not  usually  appropriate  or  suitable  for  school  decora- 


11 


tion,  although  we  of-ten  see  them  used  for  the  purpose.  Indeed, 
sometimes  school  rooms  are  found  that  have  their  walls  almost  com- 
pletely hidden  by  material  of  this  kind.  Oftentimes  it  is  tacked  or 
nailed  up  to  the  wall  and  the  following  year  will  be  torn  down, 
leaving  the  wall  permanently  disfigured  by  the  nails  that  were  used 
in  putting  it  up.  The  decorations  of  a  school  room  ought  to  be 
of  sufficient  appropriateness  and  value  to  make  them  worthy  to 
remain  on  the  wall,  when  once  put  there ;  if  not  permanently  at 
least  not  to  be  subject  to  removal  except  to  put  something  better  in 
their  places. 

Subjects.  "While  it  is  better,  in  general,  to  take  our  subjects  from 
the  lists  of  the  paintings  by  artists  whose  merit  is  generally  recog- 
nized and  acknowledged,  still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  every- 
thing of  this  type  is  not  suitable  for  school  decoration.  On  account 
of  the  nature  of  the  subject,  or  for  other  reasons,  there  are  many 
paintings  by  the  old  masters  which  are  not  nearly  so  well  suited  to 
a  school  room  as  would  be  some  less  known  pictures  by  modern 
painters. 

The  pictures  for  a  single  grade  of  a  city  school  can  be  selected 
with  reference  to  the  interests  of  children  of  about  one  age,  while 
an  ungraded  or  one-room  school  will  have  the  varying  interests  of 
children  of  all  ages.  However,  there  are  still  certain  groups  of 
subjects  that  are  safe  in  any  case. 

The  mother  and  the  child,  exemplifying  mother-love;  scenes  of 
home  life  in  the  house,  the  yard,  or  the  field;  man's  relations  with 
the  animal  world,  either  of  domestic  or  wild  animal  life ;  animal  life 
without  reference  to  man ;  the  Christ-life,  and  other  Biblical  scenes ; 
many  views  of  land  and  water ;  any  of  these,  properly  selected  are 
likely  to  present  the  elements  of  interest  which  will  lead  under 
proper  guidance  to  the  love  for  art.  Such  things  abound  in  the 
paintings  of  the  earlier  and  later  masters.  Millet,  Murillo,  Breton, 
Dupre,  Reynolds  and  many  other  signatures  will  be  found  beneath 
pictures  whose  subject  matter  is  exactly  suited  to  the  purposes  of 
hanging  in  the  school  room. 

Kinds  of  Beproductions.  The  common  penny  pictures  have 
many  uses  in  the  school  room,  but  they  are  not  usually  well  suited 
for  wall  decoration.  Besides  their  small  size,  they  are  usually  of 
the  sort  of  reproductions  known  as  half-tones,  which  are  not  very 
good  for  the  purpose.  This  is  the  kind  of  work  we  find  in  most 
magazine  pictures,  which,  while  satisfactory  for  that  kind  of  illus- 


12 


trating,  does  not  bring  out  the  lights  and  shadows  and  tone  values 
of  pictures  enough  for  the  purposes  of  wall  decoration.  Many 
publishers  get  out  reproductions  of  the  general  type  of  photo- 
gravures that  are  far  better  suited  to  the  purpose.  They  come 
mostly  in  blacks  and  browns,  and  are  true  to  the  originals  as  well 
as  being  artistic  and  permanent.  In  sizes  suitable  for  school  use 
they  can  be  had  at  prices  ranging  from  a  dollar  to  a  considerably 
smaller  amount,  depending  upon  size. 

Sizes.  A  picture  of  the  size  of  22x28  is  large  enough  for  al- 
most any  ordinary  school  room,  while  in  subjects  in  which  there  is 
not  too  much  detail  such  sizes  as  20x24,  16x20  and  even 
smaller,  are  often  convenient  and  satisfactory.  A  large  wall  space 
naturally  requires  a  larger  picture  than  a  smaller  space,  which 
enables  us  oftentimes  to  use  various  sizes  of  pictures  for  a  pleasing 
effect  in  the  same  room.  Sometimes  quite  a  small  subject,  properly 
chosen,  is  just  the  thing  for  a  narrow  space  between  two  windows 
and  here  long  panel  shaped  pictures  are  oftentimes  especially 
effective. 

Framing.  It  is  very  rarely  that  we  find  an  unframed  picture 
in  a  refined  home.  It  would  certainly  seem  as  out  of  place  in  a 
school  room. 

Probably  the  best  thing  that  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  buy  his 
pictures  already  framed,  although  there  are  some  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  doing  this.  For  instance,  the  ordinary  dealers  in  the  country 
and  small  towns  do  not  have  very  carefully  selected  stocks,  but  buy 
in  quantities,  pictures  that  have  been  selected  almost  at  random  by 
the  manufacturers  who  frame  them,  without  much  regard  to  the 
subject,  the  painter,  the  merit  of  the  reproduction  or  anything  else. 
They  are  especially  likely  to  have  cheap  and  highly  colored,  even 
gaudy  reproductions  of  paintings  by  artists  little  known  and  per- 
haps of  small  ability.  A  person  who  knows  for  what  he  is  looking 
may  occasionally  find  in  these  collections  some  subjects  that  he 
wants,  and  that  are  worth  having.  Then  the  frames  themselves  are 
oftentimes  very  flashy  and  cheap,  the  gaudy  effects  covering  all 
sorts  of  defects  of  workmanship  and  art. 

Many  small  towns,  and  nearly  all  large  ones,  have  men  whq  frame 
pictures  as  a  business  and  can  do  simple  jobs  of  framing  fairly  well. 
To  these,  however,  the  teacher  ought  to  be  able  to  give  definite  in- 
structions as  to  width  and  style  of  moulding,  width  of  margins,  etc. 

A  teacher  with  some  mechanical  and  artistic  conceptions  if  pro- 


13 


vided  with  the  proper  tools  and  materials  can  oftentimes  teach  him- 
self to  frame  pictures,  which  art  will  not  only  enable  him  to  furnish 
his  school  house  with  much  less  expense,  but  will  also  be  a  means  of 
making  some  little  extra  money,  for  in  almost  every  community 
there  are  people  who  want  pictures  framed. 

A  Marsh  mitre  machine  for  cutting  the  moulding  can  be  had  for 
about  $10.00.  This  can  be  used  in  other  departments  of  wood- 
Vv^orking  and  carpentry.   As  to  materials  he  will  need  the  following : 

Moulding,  in  two  or  three  widths.  This  can  be  bought  either  al- 
ready finished  in  various  colors,  or  "raw,"  that  is,  unfinished,  the 
stain  to  be  applied  by  the  framer,  at  prices  ranging  from  2  cents  to 
8  cents  a  foot.  Stains  already  prepared  and  easily  applied  can  be 
had  for  this  purpose.  One  advantage  is  that  the  framer  does  not 
have  to  carry  so  large  a  stock  of  mouldings,  which  he  would  need 
otherwise  in  various  colors. 

Glass.  An  amateur  would  better  confine  his  frames  to  two  or 
three  standard  sizes,  as  say  22x28,  12x20,  11x14,  for  which  he  can 
get  glass  already  cut  from  any  dealer.  Irregular  sizes  will  cost 
more.  The  framer  can  soon  learn  to  cut  glass  of  any  size  he  wishes, 
however,  with  some  practice,  and  for  from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents 
he  can  get  a  very  good  cutter. 

Backing.  The  manufacturers  make  special  backing  for  filling 
in  behind  the  pictures,  for  protection,  etc.  Ordinary  card  board 
will  not  do,  for  it  will  warp  and  the  picture  will  follow  it  and  twist 
out  of  shape. 

Miscellaneous.  Screw  eyes,  picture  wire,  tacks  and  nails  are  kept 
at  the  hard-ware  stores.  The  openings  and  cracks  between  frame 
and  backing  at  the  back  ought  to  be  pasted  to  keep  out  the  dust  and 
grime  which  will  slowly  work  its  way  down  inside  the  front  of  the 
picture.  Some  mat-board  should  be  kept  for  mounting  an  occasional 
picture  which  comes  unmounted.  This  is,  however,  one  of  the  most 
difficult  things  that  the  framer  has  to  do,  and  he  should,  whenever 
possible,  buy  his  pictures  mounted  on  the  mat-board  in  exactly  the 
form  he  wishes  to  use  them. 

Suggestions.  The  frame  should  be  cut  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
larger  than  the  picture  so  that  if  the  picture  gets  damp  and  swells 
it  will  have  room  for  expansion.  A  beginner  will  do  well  to  start 
with  small  frames,  of  narrow  moulding,  say  1  inch  or  1  1-2  inch. 
Many  of  the  two  and  three  inch  mouldings  are  so  thin  that  it  is 
extremely  hard  to  get  a  nail  through  them  without  splitting  them. 


14 


A  Yankee  spiral  punch  or  drill,  is  useful  for  drilling  before  nailing 
thin  mouldings.  Many  writers  advocate  close  framing — that  is 
without  a  margin  for  the  picture,  but  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer, 
after  extended  practice  and  observation,  that  a  properly  adjusted 
margin,  of  white  mat-board  or  occasionally  some  harmonious  shade 
gives  the  best  effect  for  many  pictures,  especially  pictures  in  which 
there  is  much  detail.  The  width  of  the  margin,  however,  is  quite 
important.  It  does  not  look  well  if  too  wide,  nor  if  too  narrow. 
Ordinarily  it  should  be  of  the  same  width  around,  although  in  some 
instances  if  slightly  wider  at  the  bottom  the  effect  is  good. 

If  the  little  penny  pictures  are  used  at  all,  they  may  be  very 
cheaply  framed  with  the  passe-partout,  in  which  form  they  are  far 
more  effective  than,  unf ramed.  In  some  instances  several  of  these 
may  be  mounted  with  proper  grouping  on  one  mat-board,  and  all 
framed  together. 

Casts. 

Where  the  room  has  a  shelf  or  other  projection  suitable  for  their 
reception  plaster  casts  make  a  very  interesting  decoration.  The 
manufacturers  also  sell  pedestals  and  wall  brackets  suitable  for 
the  reception  of  these,  although  this  will  add  considerably  to  the 
expense. 

The  casts  should  be  got  in  the  ivory  finish.  Reproductions  of  al- 
most all  the  famous  sculptures  of  the  world  can  be  had  in  this  form, 
at  prices  that  are  quite  low.  Some  small  pieces  that  would  do  very 
well  for  the  purpose  would  not  cost  over  a  dollar.  The  price  how- 
ever, increases  rapidly  with  the  size. 

Bambini,  by  Delia  Robbia,  The  Madonnas  by  various  sculptors, 
and  many  other  pieces  can  be  got  in  friezes,  or  bas-relief  casts, 
ready  to  hang  in  some  suitable  space  on  the  wall  just  as  a  picture 
is  hung. 

Flowers. 

At  many  seasons  of  the  year  the  teacher  can  have  either  growing 
flowers  or  cut  flowers  on  her  table  or  elsewhere  in  the  room,  and 
certainly  nothing  will  add  more  to  its  beauty.  Unfortunately  the 
variability  of  the  temperature  of  the  ordinary  school  room  prevents 
the  keeping  of  potted  flowers  there  at  all  times.  Still,  the  schools 
that  begin  early  can  have  flowers  in  the  room  the  greater  part  of 
the  term,  if  the  teacher  so  desires  it  and  will  take  the  trouble. 


15 


In  some  of  the  dusty,  dirty,  unkempt  and  disordered  school  rooms 
that  we  so  often  find  in  West  Virginia,  is  it  any  wonder  that  so 
much  of  our  attempted  instruction  goes  for  naught?  A  teacher 
who  will  find  the  way  to  reconstruct  such  an  interior  and  to  remake 
it  into  a  clean,  harmoniously  colored  room  with  its  walls  adorned 
with  suitable  reproductions  of  the  world's  best  art  is  certainly 
bringing  an  environment  around  the  school  that  will  silently  but 
powerfully  re-enforce  her  teaching,  and  may  give  some  lessons 
which,  no  matter  how  good  a  teacher  she  may  be,  are  without  her 
power.  May  the  time  come  when  all  rooms  of  our  schools  will  be 
such. 

Dealers  who  are  believed  to  be  satisfactory  are  as  follows : 
Moulding  and  Framing  Supplies,  etc. 

D.  E.  Abbott  &  Co.,  Huntington,  W.  Va. 

The  H.  Lieber  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Pictures : 

Perry  Picture  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass. 

Geo.  P.  Brown  &  Co.,  Beverly,  Mass. 

Bureau  of  University  Travel,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  A.  W.  Elson  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Horace  K.  Turner  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  Taber-Prang  Co.,  Springfield,  Mass. 
The  first  three  above  make  a  specialty  of  "penny  pictures," 
etc.  The  next  two  make  a  specialty  of  traveling  exhibits,  but  also 
sell  pictures.  The  last  has  a  fine  line  of  all  sorts  of  good  pictures 
at  reasonable  price.  W.  A.  Wilde  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  have  a  nice 
line  of  small  colored  biblical  pictures. 
Casts : 

P.  P.  Caproni  &  Bro.,  Boston,  Mass. 
The  C.  Hennecke  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Out  of  the  many  approved  subjects  in  pictures  a  few  are  as 


follows: 

Madonna  of  the  Chair  Raphael 

Rest  in  Flight   Knaus 

Children  of  the  Shell   Murillo 

Baby  Stuart  Van  Dyck 

Age  of  Innocence   Reynolds 

Feeding  Her  Birds  Millet 

By  the  Riverside  .Le  Rolle 

Shepherdness  Knitting   Millet 

The  Knitting  Lesson  Millet 


16 

Caritas  Thayer 

Member  of  the  Humane  Society  Landseer 

The  Connoisseurs   Landseer 

The  Blacksmith  Frere 

The  Escaped  Cow  Dupre 

The  Sistine  Madonna  Raphael 

Madonna  and  Child  , . .  .Dagnan-Bouveret 

Children  of  Charles  1  Reynolds 

The  Shepherdess   LeRolle 

The  Gleaners   Millet 

At  the  Watering  Trough  Dagnan-Bouveret 

Automedon  and  the  Horses  of  Achilles  .  .Regnault 

The  Horse  Fair  Bonheur 

The  Aurora   .Guido  Reni 

Kabyi   Shreyer 

Pilgrims  Going  to  Church   .Broughton 

Paysage   Corot 

Joan  of  Arc   Bastien  Le  Page 

Queen  Louise  Richter 

Sir  Galahad  Watts 

The  Hay  Maker  Adan 

The  Sower  Millet 

Dance  of  the  Nymphs  Corot 

The.  Golden  Stair   Burne-Jones 

Washington  Stuart 

A  Reading  from  Homer   Alma-Tadema 

Princes  in  the  Tower  Millais 

The  Last  Supper  Da  Vinci 

Can't  You  Talk   Holmes 

A  Helping  Hand  Renouf 

Monarch  of  the  Glen  Landseer 

A  Halt  in  the  Oasis  Shreyer 

Angels'  Heads  Reynolds 

Christ  in  the  Temple  Hofmann 

The  Broken  Pitcher  Greuze 

The  Infant  St.  John  Murillo 

Arrival  of  the  Shepherds  LeRolle 

Leaving  the  Hills  Farquharson 

Return  to  the  Farm  Troy«n 

Close  of  Day   Adan 

The  Infant  Samuel  Reynolds 


17 


Song  of  the  Lark  Breton 

Amiens  Cathedral  

St.  Marks  Cathedral  

Notre  Dame  Cathedral  

Milan  Cathedral   

Cologne  Cathedral   

The  Colosseum  

The  Doge 's  Palace  

The  Rialto   

SANITATION. 

Two  mottoes  that  may  be  seen  seem  to  exemplify  the  change  that 
has  come  over  man's  whole  attitude  towards  his  life,  so  far  as 
relates  to  the  question  as  to  whether  his  conditions  in  that  life  is  to 
be  of  health  and  strength  or  of  weakness  and  disease. 

Not  long  since  the  favorite  motto  that  adorned  our  walls  was 
the  familiar  ''God  Bless  Our  Home,"  executed  in  every  variety  of 
lettering  and  color.  The  motto  was,  we  might  say,  about  half 
right.  We  needed,  and  we  still  need,  all  the  care  that  can  be 
bestowed  for  our  protection  by  an  all-seeing  and  loving  Divine 
Being,  but  we  were  too  apt  to  put  all  of  the  responsibility  and  care 
on  the  all-carrying  shoulders  of  Providence.  If  while  we  sat  in 
ease  and  comfort,  disease  struck  us,  with  its  torturous  course  leav- 
ing us  in  weakness  or  in  death,  it  was  Providence  that  was  at  fault, 
and  we  put  forth  many  a  solemn  wail  at  the  mysterious  and  devious 
ways  of  the  Providence  of  God. 

Still,  a  little  labor  would  have  covered  the  cess-pool  that  bred 
the  typhoid  carrying  fly,  or  drained  the  pond  in  which  the  malaria 
bringing  mosquito  as  a  "wiggle-tail"  spent  his  active  youth,  or 
have  cleaned  out  the  lurking  germs  of  the  dread  white  plague,  left 
by  some  earlier  victims  of  tuberculosis. 

It  might  be  stretching  it  a  little  to  dignify  it  with  the  name  of 
a  motto,  but  the  legend  that  we  see  so  oftentimes  nowadays,  in  so 
many  places,  might  be  worthy  of  the  name.  At  any  rate  we  surely 
can  do  no  better  than  put  into  action  its  command,  and  whenever 
we  have  the  opportunity  "Swat  the  Fly."  Without  any  doubt 
when  we  are  doing  this  we  are  doing  something  that  really  is  far 
more  likely  to  defend  our  physical  well  being  than  we  are  in 
plastering  our  walls  with  mottoes  of  the  old  type. 

For  modern  science  is  taking  the  position  that  disease  has  causes 


18 


that  are  removable  and  preventable,  and  is,  therefore,  unnecessary. 
We  are  learning  what  agencies  carry  and  spread  each  kind  of 
illness,  whether  it  is  the  fly  that  is  the  noxious  agent  or  the 
mosquito,  or  the  flea,  or  the  wind,  or  the  water.  We  believe  that  by 
the  destruction  of  the  germs  at  their  practical  source,  all  diseases 
that  pass  from  one  person  to  another  can  be  controlled.  Other 
diseases  that  are  brought  to  the  individual  not  directly  from  some 
other  individual  but  from  the  widespread  contamination  of  waters 
and  soils,  will  be  prevented  by  stopping  the  infection  of  these 
things  and  by  a  more  widespread  diffusion  of  the  knowledge  of 
treatment  of  wounds,  and  of  the  laws  of  health  in  general.  Diseases 
that  originate  within  the  individual  from  the  misuse  of  the  various 
organs  in  wrong  habits  of  life  ,as  for  instance  dyspepsia  from  wrong 
habits  of  eating  or  wrong  kinds  of  food,  shall  be  made  to  yield  to 
right  habits  of  life,  about  which  we  are  coming  to  know  more,  and 
sickness  will  be  practically  at  an  end. 

These  things  are  not  an  idle  dream;  they  are  practical  scientific 
possibilities.  The  adopted  text  books  in  hygiene,  sanitation  and 
physiology  give  a  fine  lot  of  information  that  should  be  used 
to  this  end;  but  physiological  knowledge  is  one  of  the  most  useless 
kinds  of  knowledge,  merely  as  knowledge,  just  as  it  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  kinds  of  knowledge  when  applied.  The  teacher 
should  have  a  burning  enthusiasm  for  knowledge  of  this  sort,  should 
seek  it  and  acquire  it  from  all  possible  sources,  and  in  all  cases 
should  be  in  her  school  and  in  her  community  a  tireless  missionary 
of  the  great  gospel  of  good  health. 

Practically  she  should  above  all  try  to  control  the  conditions  of 
her  school  room  for  health.  The  room  should  be  clean  and  every 
known  sanitary  principle  within  her  power  should  be  applied.  For 
instance,  the  best  air  there  is  is  that  out  of  doors,  and  the  one  general 
principle  of  ventilation  is  to  bring  this  air  in  as  freely  as  is  possible. 
Every  dust  mote  may  be  the  aeroplane  of  a  jolly  party  of  germs, 
ambitious  to  make  explorations  and  settlements  in  some  child's 
nose  or  mouth  or  lungs.  Therefore  the  dust  mote  should  reach  the 
ground  outside  otherwise  than  by  flight  through  the  air.  Black- 
boards should  be  cleaned  outside  of  school  time  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  chalk  dust.  A  dozen  kinds  of  germs  are  lurking  in  the 
common  drinking  cup,  and  the  weakest,  the  strongest,,  or  the  dearest 
child  of  the  school  may  be  the  next  object  of  attack  by  a  colony  of 
the  most  deadly  germs.  For  each  child  to  have  his  own  cup  is  little 
trouble. 


19 

♦ 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  things  the  teacher  should  make  his 
daily  thought.  Nor  should  the  teacher's  efforts  be  confined  to  the 
school.  Unhygienic  habits  of  life  in  the  child 's  family,  at  home  will 
often  yield  to  the  tactful  talk  of  the  teacher  to  the  child.  A  teacher 
who  might  finally  have  this  epitaph:  ''Each  community  in  which 
she  taught  she  left  a  stronger  and  healthier  one."  would  certainly 
deservedly  rank  as  a  great  teacher. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  furnish  the  rules  and 
principles  for  such  a  work.  Elsewhere  must  these  be  sought;  in 
the  physiologies ;  from  medical  works ;  from  the  physicians ;  and 
from  many  other  sources.  It  is  hoped,  merely,  that  some  teachers 
from  reading  here  may  have  a  stronger  sense  of  duty  and  desire  for 
this  particular  kind  of  service. 

GRADING  AISD  PROMOTIONS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  carrying  out  instructions  in  this 
course  of  study  will  be  the  grading  of  the  pupils.  And  yet  it  is  a 
rather  simple  matter  as  a  general  proposition.  Its  difficulty  is 
found  in  applying  the  general*  principle  to  particular  pupils. 

Suppose  you  have  a  school  that  has  never  been  graded,  or  at 
least  has  been  only  very  poorly  graded.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
determine  what  pupils  should  be  in  the  first  grade.  Of  course  all 
who  are  just  starting  to  school  for  the  first  time  will  be  in  that  grade. 
Normally  we  would  expect  them  to  be  six  years  of  age.  But  some 
of  them  may  be  seven  or  eight  years  of  age. 

Furthermore,  there  will  likely  be  some  who  have  been  in  school  one 
or  two  years,  but  who,  because  of  irregular  attendance,  poor  teach- 
ing or  dullness  on  their  part,  have  not  learned  enough  of  the  first 
grade  work  to  do  the  work  of  the  second  grade.  These  will  also 
be  in  the  first  grade.  Once  it  is  determined  what  pupils  will  do  the 
work  of  the  first  year,  you  have  your  first  grade  organized.  Then 
you  go  to  the  course  of  study  and  find  just  what  work  these  pupils 
will  do.  Similarly  the  teacher  will  organize  the  pupils  into  classes 
of  the  second  grade,  third  grade,  and  so  on  up  through  the  eighth 
grade,  if  all  the  grades  are  represented.  And  by  referring  to  the 
course  of  study  the  teacher  can  tell  just  what  work  each  grade  will 
do  and  what  books  they  will  study. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  teacher  in  the  state  will  this  year  disre- 
gard the  course  of  study  and  go  on  in  the  old  way  of  trying  to  teach 
each  pupil  in  a  class  by  himself.   Even  during  the  past  year  teach- 


20 


ers  have  been  found  with  as  many  as  a  dozen  classes  in  arithmetic, 
each  pupil  working  by  himself  and  going  as  far  each  day  as  he 
could  work  the  examples  or  solve  the  problems.  Such  individual 
teaching  might  not  be  so  very  bad  if  properly  done,  but  no  teacher 
has  time  to  do  this.  Some  of  the  pupils  will  be  neglected  and  the 
neglect  usually  comes  to  the  smaller  ones  who  really  need  most  at- 
tention. 

Once  the  school  is  graded  the  matter  of  promoting  next  claims  at- 
tention. Normally  the  first  grade  would  be  promoted  to  the  second 
grade  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  second  to  the  third  and  so  on  up 
to  the  eighth  grade,  who  would  receive  their  diplomas.  But  it  does 
not  always  work  out  so  in  actual  practice.  Some  pupils  will  do  bet- 
ter than  others.  The  test  for  promotion  should  always  be  ability  of 
the  pupil  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade.  If  at  any  time 
a  pupil  can  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade,  he  should  be 
promoted.  This  situation  will  not  often  arise  unless  there  be  pupils 
whose  age  would  normally  place  them  in  a  higher  grade.  In  such 
cases  the  pupils  should  be  given  a  trial  in  the  grade  of  their  age, 
or  the  grade  next  above  the  one  in  which  they  have  been  placed.  It 
may  be  that  a  teacher  will  misjudge  a  pupil's  ability  to  do  the  work 
of  a  given  grade  and  place  him  in  a  grade  too  high.  This  misjudg- 
ment  is  all  the  more  likely  where  poor  records  of  the  pupil's  work 
have  been  kept,  the  teacher  being  compelled  to  rely  on  the  pupil's 
statement  or  a  brief  oral  examination.  In  such  case  the  pupil 
should,  after  a  fair  trial,  be  placed  in  the  next  lower  grade. 

The  classification  of  pupils  by  grades  is  a  means  of  economizing 
the  time  and  energy  of  the  teacher.  The  chief  reason  why  grading 
is  important  in  a  rural  school  is  that  a  teacher  can  in  fifteen  minutes 
teach  half  a  dozen  pupils  more  and  better  in  a  class  than  if  she  gives 
each  of  them  2^2  minutes  separately.  And  since  the  rural  teacher 
has  from  six  to  eight  grades,  it  is  the  only  way  she  can  distribute 
her  time  so  as  to  get  the  best  results  in  the  short  time  at  her  dis- 
posal. Furthermore,  there  is  something  to  be  gained  by  the  associa- 
tion of  pupils  in  a  class.  They  learn  from  one  another  and  have  a 
means  of  measuring  their  attainments  with  those  of  their  fellows. 

EXAMINATIONS  AND  THE  FEEE  SCHOOL  DIPLOMA. 

There  should  be  no  written  examinations  for  promotion  below  the 
fourth  or  fifth  grade.  There  may  be  written  exercises  of  the  nature 
of  examinations.    Even  then  and  thereafter  promotion  should  not 


21 


be  determined  wholly  by  the  results  of  the  examinations.  The  teach- 
er should  keep  in  mind  always  that  the  true  test  for  promotion  is 
ability  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade.  The  examination, 
therefore,  should  be  only  one  means  of  determining  this  ability. 
The  examination  should  be  a  fair  test  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  of 
the  work  he  has  been  doing,  and  at  the  same  time  should  be  a  test 
of  the  pupil's  ability  to  generalize  from  this  knowledge  and  apply 
it  to  new  situations. 

The  final  examination  for  the  free  school  diploma  will  be  pre- 
pared by  the  State  Superintendent.  This  examination  will  aim  to 
test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  elementary  subjects.  It  will  de- 
termine first,  whether  or  not  the  pupil  has  received  all  from  the 
elementary  grades  that  it  is  worth  while  to  get,  and  second,  whether 
or  not  he  is  prepared  to  do  the  work  of  the  first  year  in  high  school. 

The  free  school  diploma  is  serving  as  a  fine  incentive  for  pupils 
to  complete  the  elementary  grades,  especially  where  a  high  school 
is  within  reach  of  the  pupils.  Teachers  will  be  rendering  a  great 
service  not  only  to  their  pupils  but  also  to  the  state  by  acquainting 
the  boys  and  girls  with'  the  value  of  finishing  the  course  and  re- 
<3eiving  the  diploma.  To  develop  the  habit  of  finishing  a  task  once 
begun  is  an  essential  step  toward  success  in  life.  Winning  pro- 
motions year  by  year  and  finally  this  diploma  will  be  a  valuable 
-contribution  toward  fixing  such  a  habit. 

LITERARY  EXERCISES. 

Every  school  ought  to  make  some  provision  for  so-called  "liter- 
ary work"  or  "literary  exercises."  It  is  perhaps  best  for  certain 
reasons  to  have  this  done  in  the  school  under  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher,  but  if  there  is  sufficient  interest  among  the  patrons  to  main- 
tain a  good  literary  society,  meeting  in  the  school  house  at  night,  it 
is  well  to  organize  it.  The  literary  exercises  of  the  school  cannot 
assume  that  breadth  of  scope  which  the  literary  society  does,  be- 
cause of  the  immaturity  of  its  members. 

The  school  should,  in  a  measure  at  least,  become  a  social  center  for 
the  district.  The  regular  meetings  of  a  literary  society  furnish  the 
opportunity  and  occasion  for  the  patrons  of  the  school  to  meet  and 
discuss  the  subjects  that  are  of  interest  to  them.  It  affords  the 
teacher  also  an  opportunity  to  meet  the  patrons,  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  them  and  to  explain  the  work  of  the  school  and 
interest  them  in  its  work  and  enlist  their  co-operation. 


22 


There  will  always  be  in  every  community  those  whose  ability  and 
information  fit  them  to  discuss  the  larger  questions  of  the  day.  They 
bring  to  these  discussions  the  results  of  their  own  experience  and 
knowledge  of  affairs,  and  the  younger  members  of  the  society 
profit  greatly  by  hearing  them.  In  this  way  the  literary  society 
renders  both  an  intellectual  and  a  social  service. 

The  work  of  the  school  is  quite  largely  a  work  of  acquiring,  of 
taking  in,  of  impression.  In  earlier  years  the  mind's  ability  to 
take  in  exceeds  its  power  to  give  out.  And  yet  the  power  to  express 
is  the  practical  power  to  the  adult.  It  is  the  man  who  has  been 
trained  to  express  himself  who  becomes  the  leader  of  others.  It 
was  said  of  David  Page,  the  first  principal  of  the  Albany,  N.  Y., 
Normal  School,  that  one  of  his  chief  traits  was  his  ability  to  think 
and  to  express  his  thought,  ''while  standing  on  his  feet  before 
folks."  This  power  like  every  other  may  be  stronger  in  some  than 
in  others,  but  in  every  case  it  is  developed  by  experience  and  trial. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  work  of  this  kind  is  easier 
for  children  in  their  earlier  years  than  it  is  later.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult for  one  who  has  reached  maturity  without  having  had  any 
training  in  public  speaking  to  make  the  first  attempt.  As  pupils 
enter  the  period  of  adolescence  they  become  more  self-conscious  and 
it  is  more  difficult  for  them  to  respond  to  such  requirements. 

The  work,  so  far  as  it  is  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  should 
be  carefully  supervised.  Pupils  left  to  themselves  are  apt  to  select 
readings,  recitations,  etc.,  with  reference  to  some  vein  of  humor 
which  is  apt  to  be  broad  or  coarse.  The  literary  work  should  aid  in 
the  appreciation  of  good  literature.  To  this  end  the  teacher  should 
help  the  pupil  to  select  his  material  from  writers  of  known  ability 
and  reputation.  The  fact  that  material  of  this  kind  can  be  used  in 
the  literary  work  furnishes  a  stronger  motive  for  the  careful 
memorizing  of  select  poems  and  passages  of  literature. 

The  exercises  of  most  value  to  the  pupil,  hoAvever,  are  those  which 
call  upon  him  to  work  up  in  his  own  way  the  material  which  he 
may  have  accumulated  on  any  subject.  This  is  original  work. 
Theme  writing  is  to  literature  and  reading  what  the  laboratory  is 
to  scientific  study.  It  is  the  means  of  working  up  into  usable  form 
the  materials  which  one  collects.  Hence  the  essay,  oration,  or  writ- 
ten debate  is  valuable  in  developing  the  original  power  of  the  pupil 
and  teaches  him  to  arrange  his  ideas  and  express  them  in  the  most 
forcible  way. 


23 


In  many  schools  literary  societies  are  organized,  which  elect  their 
own  officers,  construct  their  own  programs  and  conduct  their  entire 
exercises.  These  societies  are  always,  of  course,  subject  to  the 
supervision  of  the  teacher.  They  have  this  advantage,  that  they  give 
pupils  a  practical  training  in  the  conduct  of  public  bodies,  and 
make  them,  to  some  extent,  familiar  with  some  of  the  principles  of 
Parliamentary  Law. 

READING  CIRCLE  WORK. 

The  idea  of  the  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  arose  some  twenty -five  or 
thirty  years  ago,  and  it  has  been  one  of  the  prominent  factors  in 
arousing  interest  in,  and  developing  the  study  of,  the  professional 
side  of  the  teacher's  work.  It  is  a  matter  for  congratulation  that 
with  so  little  organization  to  push  the  work  in  this  state,  so  large  a 
number  of  the  teachers  read  and  study  the  books  recommended  each 
year.  Every  teacher  in  the  state  ought  to  be  an  enrolled  member  of 
the  Circle.    A  few  reasons  follow  why  this  should  be  done. 

The  value  of  the  Reading  Circle  work  to  the  teacher  lies  first  in 
this,  that  it  selects  his  professional  books  for  him.  The  texts  recom- 
mended for  study  from  year  to  year  are  selected  with  especial 
care  both  as  to  their  treatment  of  the  subject  and  as  to  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  needs  of  the  teachers  of  the  State.  They  can  be  depended 
upon  as  being  sound  in  their  teaching,  and  they  are  selected  with 
reference  to  the  particular  needs  of  our  own  state.  Many  books  are 
examined  before  a  selection  is  made.  In  the  great  multiplicity  of 
books  on  educational  subjects  now  coming  from  the  press,  the  mat- 
ter of  proper  selection  of  one's  professional  reading  is  no  easy  task. 

Second.  Every  teacher,  whether  he  has  had  a  normal  course  or 
not,  must  read  some  educational  books  in  order  to  grow  profes- 
sionally. No  teacher  can  long  continue  to  do  successful  work  who 
is  not  keeping  up  with  the  progress  in  his  profession. 

This  progress  has  been  so  rapid  in  recent  years  that  it  requires 
the  teacher  to  be  on  the  alert  all  the  time.  Ten  years  has  seen  almost 
a  complete  change  in  the  view  of  the  purpose  of  the  school  and  of  the 
methods  of  attaining  that  purpose.  These  changes  are  reflected  in 
the  more  recent  books  and  literature  and,  therefore,  they  are  the 
sources  to  which  teachers  must  go  for  their  own  knowledge  of  the 
progress  and  current  tendencies  in  education.  Constant  reading 
of  the  literature  of  the  profession  is  necessary  to  one's  professional 
growth. 


24 


Third.  The  aim  in  the  Reading  Circle  work  is  to  select  books 
from  year  to  year  so  as  to  present  different  phases  of  education  or 
different  fields  of  study.  The  history  of  education,  psychology, 
method  and  the  general  principles  of  teaching,  all,  by  this  means, 
receive  their  proper  consideration  and  the  teacher's  professional 
reading  maintains  a  balance  and  proportion  which  it  otherwise 
might  not  have. 

Fourth.  By  the  purchase  from  year  to  year  of  the  books  recom- 
mended for  reading,  one  soon  accumulates  a  library  of  well-selected 
professional  books  with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar.  Frequent 
reading  and  study,  of  these  works  helps,  at  least,  to  furnish  clearer 
ideas  of  the  purposes  of  the  public  school  and  of  the  processes  of 
educating  the  child.  The  more  clearly  these  purposes  and  processes 
are  seen  the  more  direct  become  the  efforts  of  the  teacher  and  the 
better  are  the  results  of  his  teaching.  In  other  words,  careful 
study  of  the  books  prescribed  in  the  Reading  Circle  will  tend  to 
more  efficient  work  by  the  teacher. 

PLAY. 

Certainly  every  teacher  in  our  remotest  country  school  has  heard 
-of  the  importance  of  teaching  children,  and  even  adults,  by  begin- 
ning with  what  they  already  know.  This  is  a  widely  recognized 
principle  and  should  be  applied  in  every  phase  of  school  room  work. 
Play  is  one  of  the  instincts  found  in  the  early  development  of  child 
life.  It  is  only  the  abnormal,  or  very  exceptional  child  who  enters 
school  with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  spontaneous  play,  and  of  a 
few  simple  games.  Hence,  this  elementary  knowledge  of  games 
will  serve  as  a  good  starting  point  for  teaching.  Each  teacher 
should,  early  in  the  term,  ascertain  what  games  the  pupils  know, 
what  ones  they  like,  and  how  skillfully  they  can  play  them.  These 
facts  will  throw  much  light  upon  the  mental  habits  of  the  pupils 
and  upon  their  skill  in  motor  control,  two  facts  which  the  teacher 
must  know  before  he  can  do  effective  teaching.  If  the  young  pupil 
has  a  particular  desire  to  play  ball  it  is  quite  probable  that  you 
can  teach  him  this  word  much  more  easily  than  a  word  which  does 
not  appeal  to  his  interests.  If  the  pupil  lacks  motor  control  you 
may  be  able  to  discover  some  physical  defect,  which,  if  not  attended 
to,  will  seriously  impair  mental  development;  that  is,  the  teacher 
may  be  able  to  discover  a  defect  in  s;eeing,  or  hearing.    There  are 


25 


other  reasons,  however,  why  the  teacher  should  give  attention  to 
play.   The  main  ones  are  recreation  and  sport. 

Games  have  a  positive  educational  influence  in  the  development 
of  the  individual.  The  child  wha  is  dull,  slow,  and  timid,  and  seems 
tv  hesitate  before  acting  upon  external  stimuli  often  undergoes  a 
complete  change  under  the  influence  of  carefully  planned  or  spon- 
taneous games.  His  sense  of  perception  is  cultivated  by  learning 
to  see  the  ball  when  it  is  coming  towards  him,  to  make  the  proper 
muscular  reaction  with  the  bat,  to  hear  the  footsteps  behind  him, 
to  recognize  and  respond  quickly  to  all  the  stimuli  around  him. 
If  he  is  excelled  by  pupils  of  his  own  age  and  seeming  strength  his 
motive  will  be  strong  for  improvement.  The  awkward  pupil  has 
strong  reasons  for  developing  activity  and  grace. 

Many  children  who  are  timid  and  backward  owing  to  certain 
home  environment  naturally  shrink  from  society.  They  lack  self- 
confidence  and  hesitate  to  trust  others.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  those  who  are  bold,  over-confident,  and  self-assertive.  Nothing 
is  a  better  leveller  for  these  two  cases  than  games  which  require  co- 
operation. The  timid  child  gains  self-respect  and  confidence,  and 
the  boisterous  one  learns  that  he  cannot  secure  results  without  the 
co-operation  of  his  playfellows. 

Many  children  come  from  families  in  which  they  move  according 
to  that  which  pleases  them.  They  have  always  acted  upon  impulse 
and  have  never  learned  to  suppress  a  desire  for  the  sake  of  the  end 
to  be  attained.  Well  chosen  and  skillfully  directed  games  will  do 
much  towards  developing  the  children's  ideas  so  that  they  will  act 
for  the  good  of  society  rather  than  for  selfish  purposes. 

Games  for  young  children  should  have  few  restrictions  and  should 
aim  to  develop  spontaneity  and  initiative.  However,  the  very  young 
child  will  soon  learn  that  he  must  conform  to  certain  regulations; 
these  regulations  become  more  formal  and  exact  as  the  child  matures 
and  indulges  in  other  games.  He  soon  learns  that  he  cannot  bat  out 
of  his  turn,  that  the  rights  of  other  pupils  must  be  respected,  and 
that  at  times  he  must  even  make  a  sacrifice  hit  in  order  that  another 
may  score.  Ample  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the  pupil  to  distin- 
guish between  winning  by  fair  means  or  by  foul.  If  a  love  of  fair 
play  is  instilled  into  the  pupil  at  an  early  age  it  will  be  of  inesti- 
mable value  both  to  the  pupil  himself  and  to  society. 

We  would  suggest  to  teachers  that  games  be  selected  which  have 
strong  playing  values,  i.  e.  the  game  selected  should  contain  the 


26 


elements  of  both  sport  and  interest.  Let  the  teacher  participate  in 
all  games.  Do  not  make  games  too  serious;  get  fun  and  laughter 
out  of  them.  In  teaching  games  much  interest  may  be  added  if  a 
full  explanation  is  given  by  the  teacher  before  the  game  is  begun. 
This  may  often  best  be  done  by  means  of  diagrams  upon  the  black- 
board. Whenever  the  interest  in  a  game  wanes  the  teacher  should 
be  ready  to  suggest  a  new  one.  Games  furnish  excellent  opportun- 
ity for  teaching  discipline ;  let  the  teacher  see  to  it  that  good  dis- 
cipline prevails  upon  the  play  ground.  Teach  pupils  to  play  to 
win,  but  emphasize  the  importance  of  proper  tactics,  and  aim  to 
cultivate  a  high  sense  of  honor. 

For  further  study  of  games  it  is  recommended  that  the  teacher 
procure  a  copy  of  "Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School  and 
Gymnasium"  by  Jessie  H.  Bancroft.  The  book  is  published  by  the 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Price  $1.50.  It  names  and  de- 
scribes a  large  number  of  games  suitable  for  each  grade  in  the 
elementary  school.  The  following  list  may  prove  helpful  to  teach- 
ers. 


First  and  Second  Years. 


Playground. 
Jack  be  Nimble. 


Indoors. 


The  Muffin  Man. 
Teacher  and  Class. 
Do  This,  Do  That. 


Changing  Seats. 

Bean  Bag  and  Basket  Relay. 

Kaleidoscope. 

Oats,  Peas,  Beans. 


Third  and  Fourth  Years. 


Playground. 


Indoors. 


Bean  Bag  Circle  Toss. 
Single  Relay  Race. 
Prisoner's  Base. 
The  Farmer  is  Coming. 
Hill  Dill. 


Blackboard  Relay. 
Leaf  by  Leaf. 
Slap  Jack. 
Target  Toss. 
Last  Man.  • 


Fifth  to  Eighth 


Grades  luclusiye. 


Playground. 


Indoors. 


Circle  Dodge  Ball. 
Wood  Tag. 
Double  Dodge  Ball. 
Jumping  Rope — III. 
Partner  Tag. 

Old  Woman  From  the  Wood. 
War. 

Base  Ball. 


Blackboard  Relay  Race. 

Nimble  Squirrel. 

Bend  and  Stretch  Relay. 

Hen  Roost. 

The  Minister's  Cat. 

Author's  Initials. 

Prince  of  Paris. 


27 


MORALS  AND  MANNERS. 

Character  has  a  physical  basis  and  this  fact  should  be  recognized 
early  in  life  by  the  child.  The  teaching  of  morals  and  manners 
should  be  so  directed  that  the  child  would  realize  that  its  physical 
welfare  will  be  benefited,  and  that  it  pays  to  do  right  for  economic 
and  social  reasons.  It  should  be  made  clear  to  children  that  their 
usefulness,  influence,  and  happiness  in  life  will  depend  very  large- 
ly on  the  character  they  will  build. 

There  are  two  distinct  periods  in  character  building  that  the 
teacher  must  recognize  if  any  desirable  results  are  to  be  obtained. 
The  period  of  childhood  from  six  to  about  twelve  or  thirteen  and 
the  period  of  youth  from  twelve  or  thirteen  to  about  twenty 
years  or  later  must  be  clearly  distinguished.  In  childhood  the 
instincts  are  individualistic.  The  appeal  must  be  made  only  in 
so  far  as  the  child  can  see  a  personal  benefit  to  be  derived.  All 
other  teaching  must  be  based  on  recognized  and  accepted  author- 
ity. The  important  thing  in  childhood  is  to  have  the  child  act  out 
every  moral  idea  and  precept  that  is  to  be  learned.  A  properly 
organized  school  furnishes  very  excellent  situations  for  the  child 
to  do  what  is  to  be  learned.  AVith  the  child  even  more  than  with 
the  youth  the  doing  is  the  learning. 

As  soon  as  the  child  attains  to  the  age  of  youth  a  very  different 
manner  of  treatment  must  be  accorded  him.  His  social  instincts 
now  make  it  possible  for  him  to  become  morally  whatever  his  en- 
vironment will  produce  in  him.  He  now  has  a  natural  disp<jsi- 
tion  to  do  and  to  live  for  other  people.  The  teacher  should  not  only 
recognize  this  new  sense  but  he  must  also  recognize  that  the  youth 
has  a  keen  sense  of  the  respect,  reverence,  and  confidence  that  he 
is  worthy  of.  He  should  be  treated  now  as  one  whose  opinions  and 
behavior  are  of  real  worth  to  other  people. 

Some  of  the  things  that  the  child  should  learn  are  cleanliness, 
neatness,  promptness,  regularity  and  obedience.  It  is  also  well 
that  the  child  should  learn  that  it  should  pay  for  a  benefit  before 
it  enjoys  it  and  that  it  should  take  pain  before  pleasure  when  the 
one  follows  the  other.  Teach  by  incidents,  illustrations,  and  stories 
well  told  to  impress  the  idea  and  to  secure  the  proper  response  in 
conduct.  Show  that  kindness,  honesty  and  truthfulness  have  their 
sure  reward.  Teach  that  industry,  politeness,  and  respect  for  other 
people  are  desirable  virtues  and  that  idleness,  rudeness  and  irrever- 
ence are  vices  to  be  avoided. 


28 


Teach  the  youth  to  see  clearly  the  need  and  value  of  institu- 
tions, of  government  and  of  society.  Use  biography,  history,  and 
literature  to  show  how  civilization  depends  upon  the  co-operation 
of  human  beings  of  all  classes  and  ranks  of  life.  Give  the  youth 
large  opportunity  to  act  out  his  moral  ideas  and  place  responsi- 
bility upon  him  for  which  he  is  to  account  in  a  reasonable  length 
of  time.  Keep  in  mind  in  dealing  with  both  children  and  youth 
that  prevention  and  not  reformation  is  the  school's  function.  The 
time  to  act  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  before  the  impulse  and 
^instinct  have  resulted  in  undesirable  behavior. 

PLA^f  BOOK. 

There  is  no  learning  without  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
Memorizing  is  not  learning.  There  is  no  teaching  without  thinking 
and  reasoning  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Hearing  pupils  recite 
the  lessons  they  have  acquired  and  drilling  pupils  on  what  they 
have  not  yet  acquired  is  not  teaching. 

There  is  no  teaching  without  thinking  on  the  part  of  both  pupil 
and  teacher.  Thinking,  in  this  connection,  may  be  described  as  mak- 
ing plans  to  meet  felt  needs  and  finding  means  to  secure  the  end 
planned  for.  Thinking  consists  in  planning  worthy  purposes  and 
aims  and  in  finding  the  most  economic  means  to  the  attainment  of 
these  purposes  and  aims.  It  follows  that  successful  learning  and 
teaching  alike  must  be  well  planned. 

Every  teacher  should  have  a  plan  book  of  convenient  size.  A 
blank  book  about  8x10  inches  is  suitable  in  size.  The  teacher  should 
begin  to  collect  material  in  this  book  not  later  than  the  county 
institute  in  any  school  year.  During  this  institute  week,  many  sug- 
gestions should  be  developed  into  tentative  school  plans  which 
should  later  mature  into  very  definite  plans  for  teaching.  When  the 
school  opens,  the  book  should  contain  the  large  plans  for  the  entire 
year  and  detailed  plans  for  the  first  week  or  two. 

After  the  school  has  opened  in  the  fall,  the  plan  work  should 
be  done  weekly  and  daily.  At  the  end  of  each  week,  the  plans  for 
the  next  week  should  be  written  in  the  book.  These  plans  should 
indicate  briefly  how  much  will  be  attempted  in  each  subject;  book 
subjects  by  topics  and  outlines,  etc. ;  objective  subjects  as  nature 
study,  home  geography,  agriculture,  etc.,  by  very  definite  accounts 
of  the  material  to  be  used  in  each  lesson,  together  with  the  aim  or 
purpose  in  presenting  the  material.    In  doing  this  weekly  plan 


29 


work,  the  text  book  material  should  be  carefully  sifted  to  find  what 
the  pupil  will  need  to  learn,  what  difficulties  the  pupil  will  find  in 
learning  the  material,  and  what  may  be  omitted.  This  is  the  time  to 
rank  the  material  according  to  its  educative  value.  As  the  book 
grows  from  week  to  week,  the  teacher  can  look  back  in  it  to  get  the 
trend  of  his  school  and  to  direct  the  school  more  wisely  and  econom- 
ically. 

There  can  be  no  successful  teaching  without  daily  preparation 
and  planning  of  the  work.  A  teacher  never  becomes  so  thorough  in 
any  subject  that  daily  preparation  is  not  necessary  to  teach  it  suc- 
cessfully. To  provide  for  good  teaching  and  the  growth  of  the 
teacher,  individual  lessons  should  be  planned  as  often  as  time  will 
permit.  A  plan  of  this  kind  consists  in  stating  the  aim  or  purpose 
of  the  lesson  or  group  of  closely  related  lessons,  an  analysis  of  the 
material  to  be  studied  in  the  lesson  and  the  chief  teaching  questions 
to  be  asked  the  pupils. 

Suggestive  school  room  material,  such  as  seat  work,  plan  books, 
etc.,  may  be  found  by  writing  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ;  A. 
Flanagan,  Chicago,  111.;  or  Milton  Bradley,  11  E.  16th  St.,  New 
York.  A  chapter  on  lesson  planning  together  with  a  number  of 
lesson  plans  may  be  found  in  Strayer's  "The  Teaching  Process," 
published  by  the  MacMillan  Company,  New  York  City,  $1.25. 

THE  DAILY  PEOGRAM. 

A  program  of  work  is  a  labor  saver.  Most  people  waste  much 
time  and  energy  because  they  do  not  have  a  regular  time  and  order 
in  which  to  do  their  work.  Much  of  the  useless  worry  of  men  and 
women,  to  say  nothing  of  the  waste,  is  due  to  lack  of  a  definite  plan. 
Our  stomachs  require  regular,  systematic  use  for  efficiency  in  diges- 
tion; much  more  so  our  brains  require  a  regular,  systematic  use  if 
efficiency  and  health  of  mind  may  be  expected. 

Students  and  teachers,  more  than  other  people,  need  a  daily  pro- 
gram of  study,  recitation,  recreation,  etc.  The  pupils  in  your  school 
should  be  taught  to  see  the  value  of  a  daily  schedule  of  the  time  and 
order  in  which  they  do  all  their  work,  from  arising  in  the  morning 
to  retiring  at  night. 

A  proper  use  of  a  well-planned  daily  schedule  of  study  and  recita- 
tion will  not  only  diminish  worry  and  waste  but  it  will  do  much  to- 
ward securing  better  learning  as  well  as  provide  for  happier  pupils 
and  teachers. 


30 


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The  type  program  here  given  is  to  help  teachers  plan  programs 
for  their  own  schools.  It  will  require  careful  study  of  this  program 
on  the  part  of  teachers  to  be  of  use  to  them. 

In  this  daily  schedule  it  will  be  observed  by  the  teacher  that 
nature  study  includes  the  beginnings  of  a  number  of  subjects. 
Under  this  head  the  classes  will  study  and  recite  in  geography  until 
the  4th  year,  in  hygiene  and  sanitation  until  the  7th  year,  in  num- 
ber study  during  the  2nd  year.  This  correlation  of  number,  geo- 
graphy, physiology  and  sanitation  with  nature  study  will  save  much 
time  for  the  teacher. 

Spelling  should  be  taught  at  all  times  in  connection  with  language 
and  composition.  All  written  work  should  be  correctly  spelled  by 
the  pupils.  There  is  but  one  period  a  day  for  spelling  book  recita- 
tion. This  is  for  pupils  from  the  4th  to  the  7th  or  8th  year.  Fourth 
and  5th  year  pupils  should  form  one  class  in  spelling,  and  6th,  7th 
and  possibly  8th  year  pupils  another  class.  These  classes  should 
recite  every  other  day. 

Agriculture  and  physiology  should  alternate.  In  any  event  agri- 
culture should  receive  about  twice  as  much  time  as  physiology.  If 
the  school  is  crowded  for  time,  the  book  called  physiology  should 
not  be  taught. 

History  and  civics  should  be  taught  in  the  same  class.  There 
should  be  no  separate  class  for  civics. 

In  the  8th  year  arithmetic  and  bookkeeping  are  taught  together. 
Composition  and  spelling  in  the  3rd  and  4th  years  should  be  directed 
as  seat  work  and  carefully  inspected  by  the  teacher. 

There  is  one  period  for  literature  for  three  sections.  Section  C 
should  recite  about  once  per  week ;  sections  B  and  A  should  each  re- 
cite twice  per  week. 


32 


COURSE  OF  STUDY 


FIRST  YEAR. 
KEADIIVG  (HISTORY  AND  LITEEATUEE.) 
General  Suggestions. 

One  function  of  the  school  is  to  shorten  the  time  necessary  for 
learning.  The  amount  to  be  learned  by  school  children,  even  after 
all  proper  eliminations  are  made  from  our  present  program  of 
studies,  is  increasing  from  decade  to  decade.  The  school  should 
accept  the  situation  and  its  responsibility  to  save  time  and  energy 
for  boys  and  girls  in  acquiring  knowledge. 

Children  may  learn  to  read  in  three  years.  Reading  as  a  distinct 
subject  should  cease  not  later  than  the  end  of  the  fifth  school  year. 
Five  years  of  six  months  each  is  sufficient  time  to  learn  to  read. 
After  the  fifth  year,  learning  to  read  should  be  incidental  to  read- 
ing to  learn.  Time  and  energy  in  learning  to  read  may  be  saved 
by  providing  better  selections  for  reading,  closer  correlation  with 
other  subjects,  reasonable  motive,  clearer  notions  of  the  nature  of 
reading,  and  better  methods  and  devices  for  teaching  the  subject. 

In  selecting  the  material  for  reading  lessons,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  the  child's  tastes  and  interests,  his  ability  to  comprehend 
and  appreciate  and  the  demands  of  his  emotional  nature.  The  selec- 
tions for  reading  should  be  narrative  rather  than  descriptive.  The 
story  with  action  is  well  suited.  There  should  be  some  dramatic 
action  to  arouse  his  curiosity;  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  ask  what 
will  happen  next. 

The  reading  should  be  closely  correlated  to  the  other  studies 
in  the  school.  Increasing  the  child's  stock  of  images,  ideas,  etc., 
in  the  lower  grades  is  the  business  of  the  nature  study,  oral  stories^ 
literature,  etc.  After  the  children  have  clear  images,  ideas,  meaning 
for  the  words  and  sentences  they  know  by  sound,  they  are  ready  to 
begin  to  interpret  the  symbols  by  sight.  To  put  the  symbols,  the 
sentences  and  words  before  the  images,  ideas  and  meaning  is  to 
waste  the  time  and  energy  of  children. 


33 


The  danger  in  teaching  reading  is  that  the  children  will  learn 
many  symbols — sentences  and  words — for  which  they  have  no 
images,  ideas  and  meanings.  To  pronounce  the  words  and  to  con- 
trol the  other  elements  of  form  involved  in  reading  is  no  evidence 
that  the  children  have  the  meaning.  Children  have  a  fatal  facility 
in  handling  symbols  without  the  meaning.  Reading  means  intellec- 
tual death  to  children  if  the  meaning  is  ignored  and  the  process  is 
reduced  to  one  of  drill  upon  the  words  and  sentences. 

Learning  to  read  consists  of  two  different  processes.  The  first  is 
the  associating  of  the  images,  ideas  and  meaning  the  child  already 
has  in  its  mind  with  the  sentences  and  words  present  to  its  sense  of 
sight.  The  association  must  be  repeated  until  the  words  and  sen- 
tences call  up  the  images,  ideas  and  meaning.  This  enables  the  child 
to  do  silent  reading.  The  second  process  consists  in  the  child's  pro- 
nouncing the  words,  phrases  and  sentences  in  such  a  way  as  to 
convey  the  correct  meaning.  This  enables  the  child  to  do  oral  read- 
ing.  The  correct  order  is  silent  reading,  then  oral  reading. 

A  Black-board  Lesson  in  Eeading  for  Beginners. 

Teacher's  Aims: 

1.  To  produce  and  ce courage  freedom  and  naturalness  of  vocal  expression, 

that  monotony  of  tone  may  be  completely  obviated. 

2.  To  teach  the  words  roll,  toss,  (the)  hall. 

Subject  Matter.  Method. 


A.  Preparation. 

For  spirit  and  attitude. 
!Por  physical  movement. 


B.    The  ''language-reading"  lesson. 

1.  Roll  the  ball. 

2.  Toss  the  ball. 

3.  I  can  roll  the  ball. 

4.  I  can  toss  the  ball. 

5.  Jack  and  Jill  can  roll  the  ball. 

6.  You  and  I  can  toss  the  ball. 

7.  Toss  the  ball. 

8.  Roll  the  ball. 


C.  To  judge  and  criticize  construc- 
tively the  work  as  it  is  done. 
Read  the  stories  in  such  a  way 
that  they  seem  to  be  speaking,  and  the 
other  little  children  will  wish  to  do 
what  the  readers  tell  them. 


A.  Preparation. 

(Have  a  short  conversation  with  the 
pupils  about  the  hall.  Let  them  han- 
dle it,  and  play  with  it.  Have  them 
bounce  it;  toss  it;  catch  it;  roll  it. 

B.  The  teacher  says :    ' '  Roll  the  ball, 
James. ' '    James  rolls  the  ball. 

Teacher  says :  ' '  Now  my  chalk  will 
say  what  I  have  said.  Watch  the 
chalk. ' ' 

She  then  writes: 
Roll  the  ball. 

' '  You  may  read  what  the  chalk 
says,  Mary. ' ' 

"You  may  do  what  the  chalk  says, 
Helen." 

In  a  similar  way,  giving  place  for 
doing  and  reading,  the  whole  lesson 
may  be  presented,  sentence  at  a  time 
being  written. 

C.  Did    you    enjoy    hearing  Helen 
read?  Why? 

What  might  Helen  have  done  to  make 

the  story  more  enjoyable? 
Who  will  try  to  read  it  in  this  way? 


34 


D.    Summary.     To  review  the  new  D. 


words  roll,  toss,  the  hall. 

1,  Children  pointing  to  words  and 

naming. 

2.  Teacher     pointing,  children 
naming  rapidly. 


1.  You  may  show  us  one  word 

which  you  learnedi  today 
and  expect  to  remember 
always. 

2.  Be  ready  to  name  quickly  any 

word  I  point  to. 
(Individual    answers,    not  group- 
work.) 


A  Black  board  Lesson  in  Beading,  Using  the  Primer. 


Teacher's  Aims; 


To  prepare  the  children  for  the  use  of  the  Primer  (The  Story  Readers), 
by  creating  an  interest  in  Dat  and  Don,  the  little  children  of  the 
book. 


Subject  Matter. 
A.  Preparation. 


1.    A  story. 


2.    The  surprise. 


B.    The  reading. 


1.  Jack  is  a  little  boy. 

2.  Little  Boy  Blue  is  a  little  boy. 

3.  And  Don  is  a  little  boy. 

4.  Miss  Muffet  is  a  little  girl. 

5.  Jill  is  a  little  girl. 

6.  Dot  is  a  little  girl. 

7.  Dot  and  Don  are  our  new 
friends. 


C.    Word  review. 


Method  of  Procedure. 
A.  Preparation. 

Tell  the  children  some  short,  inter- 
esting story  about  a  little  boy  and  girl 
named  Don  and  Dot.  Each  teacher 
should  weave  this  story  to  meet  the 
particular  interests  of  her  class. 

When  the  climax  of  the  story  is 
reached,  tell  them  that  you  have  a 
great  surprise  in  store  for  all  those 
who  read  well  the  stories  on  the  board 
this  day. 

B.    The  reading. 

''Who  was  Jack?"  ''The  chalk 
tells  us. "   "  You  may  read  it,  Anna. ' ' 

"This  story  tells  us  who  Little  Boy 
Blue  was.    Eead  it,  William..''  Etc. 

"Would  you  like  to  know  more  of 
Dot  and  Don?  Well,  this  is  your 
surprise.  You  have  read  this  so  well 
today,  that  tomorrow  you  may  each  try 
to  read  it  from  a  new,  new  book  I 
have  for  you. 

But  let  us  be  sure  we  know  the 
names  of  our  new  friends." 

C.    "You  may  show  the  word  which 
says — Dot. ' ' 
"Don." 

"Tell  me  these  words  as  I  point 
to  them  quickly. ' ' 
"Who  is  ready  to  erase  every  word 
which  says  Dot? 
Don? 

Tomorrow  we  shall  use  our  new 
books. ' ' 


First  Grade. 


In  the  first  grade,  there  should  be  about  three  or  four  short 
periods  per  day  for  reading  rather  than  two  longer  periods.  Plan 
the  work  well;  then  have  the  children  respond  with  vigor.  Have 


35 


no  class  this  year  in  phonics  or  in  spelling  and  do  not  introduce 
these  subjects  into  the  reading  of  this  year.  Simply  have  all  words 
correctly  spelled  when  the  children  have  occasion  to  write.  In  as- 
signing all  written  work,  be  careful  to  provide  a  way  for  the  chil- 
dren to  find  how  the  words  are  spelled.  Have  the  child  learn  the  new 
words  in  sentences  where  they  have  their  meaning  and  use.  Neither 
the  child  nor  the  adult  has  use  for  words  except  in  sentences ;  it  is 
waste  to  learn  isolated  words.  There  are  many  devices  for  calling 
attention  to  words  and  for  providing  for  the  repetition  of  words 
and  sentences. 

Have  the  children  picture  clearly  in  their  minds  and  feel  the 
meaning  of  what  they  have  read.  Let  no  oral  reading  be  poorly 
done.   The  teacher  should  read  often  with  the  pupils. 

The  plan  of  the  teacher  should  be  to  have  the  pupils  learn  how  to 
read.  The  purpose  of  the  pupils  should  always  be  to  read  to  know 
and  enjoy  some  story,  bit  of  literature,  etc.  This  point  of  view  of 
the  pupil  properly  provided  for  and  maintained  will  facilitate 
learning  how  to  read.  To  this  end  the  story  or  nature  study  mater- 
ial upon  which  the  first  lessons  in  reading  are  to  be  based  should  be 
presented  to  the  children  in  a  lesson  or  two  before  reading  is  begun. 
The  pupils  should  be  attracted  to  the  nature  study  or  story  material ; 
they  should  form  clear  images  and  ideas ;  teacher  and  pupils  should 
enter  into  conversation  upon  every  story  or  nature  study  material 
until  ready  expression  on  the  part  of  the  children  is  secured. 

The  reading  material  should  be  drawn  from  daily  life,  objects  and 
attractive  stories  and  literature  of  action.  Neither  the  primer  nor 
the  first  reader  should  be  used  to  begin  the  reading  lessons.  At 
first  the  reading  should  be  from  the  blackboard  and  based  upon 
conversations  at  the  time  about  objects,  pictures,  drawings,  stories, 
etc.  Use  large  plain  script  in  writing  on  the  board. 

Plan  the  work  on  the  board  as  to  objects,  stories,  etc.,  used,  and 
words  learned,  to  prepare  for  the  primer  or  reader  to  be  used. 
During  the  first  year  the  child  should  finish  the  adopted  primer  and 
reader  and  one  or  more  supplementary  primers  or  first  readers. 

Busy  work — Let  the  first  year  pupils  write  and  draw  on  the  board, 
write  and  draw  with  large  soft  pencils  on  paper,  make  paper  cut- 
tings of  the  stories  learned,  do  well  planned  nature  study  work,  and 
read  the  easy  supplementary  readers  and  story  books.  Some  kind 
of  constructive  hand-work  such  as  card-board  cutting,  basket-mak- 
ing, weaving,  etc.  can  be  easily  planned.    A  helpful  little  book — 


36 


Games,  Seat  Work,  and  Sense  Training  Exercises,  is  published  by 
A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago,  111.,  $0.40. 


A. 


Subject  Matter. 
Preparation. 

1.    Getting  acquainted  with  the 
book. 


A  Study  Lesson  in  Reading,  Using  the  Primer. 

Teacher 's  Aim : 

1.  To  have  the  children  enjoy  their  first  use  of  the  reading  book;  to  have 

a  good  time  with  the  lesson. 

a.  By  understanding  the  use  of  pictures. 

b.  By  interest  in  the  story  itself. 

c.  By  appreciating  the  fact  that  our  beautiful  poems  and  stories  such 

as  ' '  The  Swing ' '  are  to  be  found  in  books. 

2.  To  have  the  (jhildren  read  with  as  much  ease,  fluency,  and  naturalness 
of  expression  as  they  had  acquired  in  their  reading  from  the  black- 
board. 

3.  To  begin  to  inculcate  the  habit  of  correct  standing,  and  correct  holding 
of  the  book;  also,  the  sharing  of  thought  by  the  eye  as  well  as  the 
voice. 

Method. 

A.  Preparation. 

1.  ' '  This  is  the  surprise  which  I 
promised  you  for  today. 
Now  you  may  look  all 
the  way  through  the 
book,  and  see  all  the 
pretty  pictures  before  we 
begin  to  read." 

2.  ' '  Let  us  all  turn  to  page  8 
and  see  what  we  shall 
find  there.  What  do  you 
like  most  on  the  page? 
Tell  us  what  you  see  in 
the  picture. ' ' 

b.    *'What  do  you  suppose  is 

the  litle  girl's  name?" 
''Yes,  it  is  Dot."  (Teacher 
points  to  Dot.)  (Black- 
board study.) 
"The  little  boy's  name?  And 

this  word  says  Don. ' ' 
''Where  is  Dot?  Very  well, 
this  word  tells  where 
Dot  is.  It  says  swing. 
And  this  word  says 
swinging. Find  in  your 
book  Dot.  Put  your 
fingers  on  it,  and  I  will 
see  how  many  have  it. 
Find  swing;  swinging; 
Don. 

B.  Eeading. 
' '  Shall  we  not  ' '  make  believe  ' '  that 

the  little  boy  is  calling  Dot?  Make 
your  voice  tell  us  that  Dot  is  answer- 
ing Don. 


The  lesson,  page  8. 
a.      The  picture. 


(Eeview) 


The  new  words,  swing, 
swinging. 
Dot,  Don,  catch. 


B. 


Reading. 

a.    The  voice. 


37 

b.  Proper  way  to  hold  the  book.        Do  you  like  the  way  James  stands 

to  read  this  story?  How  might  he 
''share  it'^  with  us  better?  You  may 
try,  Martha. 

c.  ''Sharing  the  story"  with  the         Compare  the  two  readers,  tell  which 

eyes,  as  well  as  the  voice!     did  the  better  work.  Why? 

C.  Eeview  the  story,  having  one  child     C.    ' '  You  may  be  Dot,  and  you  may 
take  Dot's  part,  another  Don's.  be  Don.    We  shall  see  if  it  sounds 

like  a  little  boy  and  girl  playing 
and  talking  together." 

D.  The  poem  at  the  bottom  of  the     D.    ' '  Now  there  are  four  lines  at  the 
page.  bottom  of  the  page  which  we  have 

not  read.    I'll  read  them  to  you. 

Do   you   like  that? 

How  many  would  like  to  learn 
to  read  so  they  may  find  beautiful 
poems  like  this  one  and  read 
them? 

Well  you  will,  if  you  are  very 
patient  each  day. 

NATURE  STUDY. 
General  Suggestions. 

Nature  study  is  a  study  of  the  world  of  out-door  objects  and 
phenomena.  Its  purpose  is  to  aid  in  building  up  the  child's  mind 
by  direct  observation  of  the  common  things  in  the  child's  environ- 
ment. It  should  put  the  pupil  in  a  sympathetic  attitude  tov/<:i  J 
nature  for  the  purpose  of  (a)  increasing  the  joy  of  living,  and  (b) 
laying  the  foundation  for  an  appreciation  and  understanding  of  geo- 
graphy, botany,  zoology,  physiology,  and  agriculture.  The  child 
must  have  rich,  abundant,  individual  experience  before  it  can  come 
to  a  knowledge  of  its  inheritance,  the  race  experience. 

Books  form  no  part  of  this  study.  Nature  study  is  to  precede  the 
use  of  books  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  child  here  must  get  sense 
contact  through  the  naked  eye,  ear,  touch,  smell,  and  taste  of  the 
world  around  it.  The  best  nature  study  is  out-door  observation,  al- 
though some  of  the  material  can  be  brought  into  the  school  room. 

In  the  choice  of  material  for  study  there  are  two  determining  fac- 
tors: (a)  the  objects  and  phenomena  for  observation  and  study 
must  be  those  of  which  the  teacher  has  most  knowledge  and  in  which 
he  has  most  interest,  (b)  the  material  must  be  that  which  is  com- 
monest, most  easily  seen  and  appreciated,  and  nearest  and  dearest 
to  child  life. 

"When  the  material,  objects  or  phenomena,  for  nature  study  have 
been  selected,  the  method  of  approach  is  simple  enough.  There  are 
then  three  things  in  the  order  of  approach  and  contact  of  the  child 's 


38 


mind:  (a)  the  fact,  object,  or  phenomena  sensed  by  the  child,  (b) 
the  reason  for  the  fact  sensed  by  the  child,  (c)  the  interrogation  left 
in  the  mind  of  the  child. 

Believing  that  a  course  of  nature  study  should  precede  the  study 
of  agriculture  we  may  proceed  with  the  outline  for  a  course  of  study 
in  nature  study  for  the  first  six  grades  of  the  public  school.  Let  it 
be  finally  understood  that  nature  study  deals  with  common  objects 
and  processes  as  they  directly  affect  human  life  and  interests ;  that 
it  cannot  be  book-study ;  that  both  the  material  and  method  must  be 
for  the  child  rather  than  the  adult;  and  that  the  main  purpose  is 
to  get  pupils  to  see  and  think  for  themselves. 

Grades  One  and  Two. 

In  these  grades  the  main  aim  should  be  to  give  a  general  acquaint- 
ance with  and  awaken  an  interest  in  nature,  as  it  lies  nearest  to  the 
children.  Birds,  trees,  flowers,  and.  pets  should  be  the  general 
topics.  Select  the  nearest  and  most  interesting  and  teach  only  the 
characteristics  which  are  easily  within  reach  of  the  child's  compre- 
hension. 

Animals — Birds — Learn  common  names  of  a  dozen  or  more ;  learn 
their  songs,  haunts,  and  interesting  habits;  feed  them  and  make 
homes  for  them ;  make  arrival  charts ;  note  migration  southward  in 
fall  and  northward  in  spring. 

Watch  for  the  first  appearance  of  the  robin. 

Dog — Have  a  little  pet  dog  in  the  school  room,  study  structure, 
habits,  adaption;  uses — ^to  hunt,  carry  burdens,  guard  homes; 
friendliness,  bravery,  affection  for  master;  care  of  dogs.  Kinds  in 
the  community — pictures  of  different  kinds,  all  of  dogs;  pictures 
of  the  dog's  relatives — the  wolf,  fox,  hyena,  and  jackal.  Cat — 
Study  a  live  kitten  in  the  school  room ;  structure,  habits,  care  of  cat, 
kinds  in  community,  pictures,  feeding  same,  no  meat  for  young 
maltese,  adaptation;  its  use,  proper  care,  friendliness;  study  cat's 
relatives — lynx,  wild  cat,  puma,  panther,  lion,  tiger — from  pictures 
and  stories.  Other  animals  may  be  studied  in  like  manner.  Study 
the  wild  animals  of  the  community.  In  each  case  place  particular 
stress  upon  the  value  of  the  animal  to  the  farmer. 

Plants — Trees — teach  the  names  of  a  dozen  or  more  fruit  or  nut 
bearing  trees ;  study  in  the  fall  the  fruit — shape,  size  and  value  to 
man ;  teach  the  names  of  the  most  common  forest  trees,  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  leaves,  leaf  coloration,  use  to  the  farmer.   Study  pods 


39 


as  seed  homes — beans,  peas,  milkweed,  wild  cucumber,  catalpa,. 
locust,  squashes,  pumpkins,  gourds;  study  different  kinds  of  food 
grown  in  the  neighborhood.  Soak  seeds  and  place  in  moist  saw  dust 
in  separate  dishes ;  place  one  in  a  cold  and  one  in  a  warm  place  and 
note  results.  Earth  and  sky. — Study  the  appearance  of  fields,  hillSy 
valleys,  streams,  rain,  frost,  snow,  and  wind.  Arithmetic  and  lan- 
guage in  the  first  and  second  years  should  largely  grow  out  of 
nature  study. 


DKAWINO  AND  CONSTRUCTION  WORK. 

General  Suggestion^. 

It  is  difficult  to  prescribe  a  course  in  drawing  and  constructioB 
that  will  be  suitable  for  all  schools  using  this  manual.  The  ability 
of  the  teacher  to  give  instruction  in  drawing,  the  amount  and  kind 
of  material  that  can  be  procured,  the  time  available  for  the  work^ 
or  the  supervision  it  will  receive  from  some  responsible  director^ 
are  all  elements  entering  in  to  modify  the  problem.  It  will  be  un- 
derstood, therefore,  that  the  following  outline  is  meant  to  furnish 
suggestions  to  the  teachers  rather  than  to  prescribe  a  hard  and  fast 
scheme  to  be  followed  rigidly.  The  sketches  and  illustrations  are 
meant  to  be  typical,  as  it  is  obvious  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
illustrate  fully  every  suggestion  that  is  made. 

While  there  may  be  difficulties  in  the  way  of  giving  instruction 
in  drawing  in  many  places,  yet  every  teacher  should  attempt  as 
much  of  it  as  can  be  done.  Some  progress  will  be  made  no  matter 
how  little,  at  the  very  first  attempt,  and  increasing  progress  can 
be  made  thereafter.    Teachers  are  urged  to  make  the  trial. 

The  aims  in  teaching  drawing  are:  (1)  to  train  the  pupils  to 
habits  of  accurate  observation  of  form  and  color — ^to  see  things  as 
they  are;  (2)  to  train  the  hand  to  reproduce  the  form  of  the  things 
just  as  it  is  seen;  (3)  to  train  the  esthetic  sense  to  a  true  appreci- 
ation of  the  beauty  and  harmony  of  form  and  color  as  seen  in  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture. 


a 


40 


It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  drawing  is  a  form  of  expression. 
Ideas  may  be  expressed  in  language,  (literature,  etc.)  tone  (music, 
color  (painting),  or  form  (sculpture  and  architecture).  Drawing 
is  a  combination  of  the  two  latter.  It  is  an  expression  in  form  or  in 
color,  or  both,  of  what  the  eye  sees,  or  what  the  mind  conceives.  As 
any  other  form  of  expression  it  needs  to  be  cultivated  in  order  to 
realize  its  best  development. 

Materials. 

Manila  drawing  paper,  white,  gray  or  tinted  may  be  used  and 
can  be  secured  in  packages  of  100  sheets.  The  stock  sizes  are 
9x12  and  6x9.  Special  sizes  can  be  secured  if  necesssary. 
Good  drawing  paper  can  also  be  had  in  pads  or  tablets,  the  sheets 
being  detached  as  they  are  used. 

A  good  drawing  pencil  with  soft  or  medium  hard  lead,  and 
erasers  or  art  gum,  will  be  necessary  for  pencil  work.  Children 
should  be  taught  how  to  sharpen  drawing  pencils  so  as  to  get  best 
results  in  the  work,  and  not  waste  pencil.  (The  Dixon,  Eagle  or 
Prang  drawing  pencils  will  be  found  suitable.) 

Water  colors  may  be  secured  with  from  four  to  eight  colors  in 
a  box.  Those  who  wish  to  teach  pupils  to  mix  their  colors  as  a  part 
of  their  work  will  choose  a  four  color  box  containing  red,  blue,  yel- 
low and  black.  All  other  colors  can  be  made  from  these  primary 
ones  by  proper  combination.  Those  who  wish  a  variety  of  colors 
without  having  to  mix  them  will  secure  the  six  or  eight  color  boxes. 
Prang,  Milton,  Bradley,  Devoe  and  Reynolds'  colors  are  good; 
and  are  pu^  up  in  tin  boxes  with  brush  included. 

The  Dixon  crayons,  crayograph  by  the  American  Crayon  Co.,  or 
Crayola  by  Binney  and  Smith,  are  excellent  for  color  work  in  the 
lower  grades.  They  are  put  up  with  eight  colors  in  a  box;  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  violet,  brown  and  black. 

Models  for  drawing  can  usually  be  found  without  difficulty. 
Fruits,  leaves,  vegetables  and  flowers  can  be  used  in  season.  Trees, 
either  as  types,  or  as  individuals,  can  be  made  use  of  at  all  times. 
Vases,  boxes,  dishes,  water  buckets,  tin  cups,  bowls,  etc.,  can  be  se- 
cured from  the  homes  of  the  pupils.  "When  drawing,  the  model 
should  be  placed  in  the  clear  view  of  the  pupil  and  he  should  draw  it 
just  as  it  appears  from  his  position.  For  this  reason  the  drawings 
of  the  same  object  by  the  different  pupils  will  not  all  be  alike.  The 
same  model  may  be  used  more  than  once  by  changing  its  position. 
Small  models,  as  leaves  and  grasses,  may  be  pinned  on  paper  so 


41 


as  to  make  them  clearer,  and  several  of  them  may  be  placed  in  the 
room  so  as  to  be  seen  easily  by  all  pupils. 

In  drawing,  first  sketch  the  general  outline  of  the  object  in  soft 
gray  lines;  add  the  details  afterward. 


■■■     ■           /■  ; 

1/ 

/•- 

Grades  One,  Two  and  Three. 

The  forms  with  which  children  are  most  familiar  are  those  of 
natural  objects,  as  leaves,  grasses,  flowers,  bushes,  weeds,  etc.,  hence, 
work  may  begin  with  some  of  these.  Have  pupils  make  simple 
sketches  of  single  objects  placing  object  in  good  position  and  light 
before  them.  Have  them  study  the  form.  Pupils  must  first  be 
taught  how  to  see  objects  and  then  how  to  reproduce  what  they  see. 
Develop  parts,  showing  relation  and  proportion  to  each  other. 
Sketch  the  object  lightly.  '  Use  either  crayon,  pencil  or  chalk.  Do 
not  aim  at  exact  imitation  at  first.  Free  expression,  even  if  at 
first  crude,  will  eventually  bring  best  results. 

Show  pupils  where  to  place  drawing  on  the  paper  so  as  to  secure 
proper  arrangement  and  proportion.  Note  this  carefully  until 
pupils  habitually  locate  drawings  properly  on  paper.  Large,  free 
drawing  should  be  encouraged. 

Leaves  and  grasses.  Draw  leaves  of  trees.  At  first  select  leaves 
of  regular,  simple  outline,  then,  as  pupils  acquire  more  skill,  those 
of  less  regular  outline,  and  finally  compound  leaves,  or  sprays  of 
leaves.  Have  pupils  study  the  form  of  the  leaf,  noting  difference 
of  form  in  maple,  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  hickory,  etc.  Help  them 
by  questioning  to  get  clear  idea  of  size  and  proportion.    Sketch  the 


42 


form  with  light  free  strokes.  Give  attention  to  placing  sketch  in 
proper  position  on  paper  and  do  not  accept  small  cramped  drawing. 
Treat  seed  bearing  grains  and  grasses  in  the  same  way. 


For  color  work,  leaf  outlines  may  be  colored  with  crayola  or 
crayograph.  This  is  especially  suitable  for  autumn  when  various 
colored  leaves  are  easily  secured.    Try  to  imitate  the  natural  colors. 

For  construction  work  cut  leaf  forms  from  paper.  Fold  paper 
so  as  to  cut  both  margins  alike.  These  forms  may  be  used  in  mak- 
ing border  designs  by  reducing  to  proper  size.  Cut  the  pattern 
from  paper  and  use  it  mechanically,  otherwise  the  uniformity  of 
parts  will  be  lost.  These  designs  may  also  be  colored.  As  children 
naturally  tend  to  the  use  of  strong,  bright  colors,  teachers  will  have 
to  show  that  lighter  tints  are  really  best. 


Landscapes.  Begin  with  very  simple  studies  of  the  sky  and 
ground.    Get  children  to  place  horizon  line  properly,  always  above 


43 


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7  '^^i  r''^>  /-^^^x  /V^r^  ^-^j 

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or  below  center  of  the  paper.  Make  color  studies  of  the  sky.  Note 
its  color  at  different  times  of  the  day  and  on  different  days.  Are 
its  colors  different  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  ?  Color  as  nearly 
as  possible  like  colors  observed.    What  colors  do  pupils  see,  and 


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where  are  these  most  vivid?  Introduce  the  setting  sun  and  note 
colors  again.  Outline  some  objects  on  the  ground ;  as  a  tree.  Make 
scene  showing  ground,  water  and  sky;  place  a  boat  in  the  water. 
These  little  scenes  can  be  modified  in  a  variety  of  ways  and  used  in 
making  folders,  booklet  covers,  or  calendars. 


Work  for  sepcial  occasions.  Drawing  can  be  correlated  with 
many  of  the  special  days  observed  in  the  school,  or  with  the  months 
and  seasons.  Almost  every  month  has  some  special  day  to  be  ob- 
served. For  Hallowe'en  the  pumkin  and  Jack'o  lantern  are  appro- 
priate. Also  the  Japanese  lantern  and  witches  riding  broom  sticks. 
These  may  be  colored,  cut  out  and  mounted  as  construction  work. 

November  brings  Thanksgiving.    Pupils  may  prepare  booklets 


44 


decorating  cover  with  turkeys,  etc.  More  advanced  pupils  may  add 
pictures  of  the  Pilgrims  in  costume,  log  cabins,  Puritan  hats,  etc. 
In  higher  grades  this  work  can  be  correlated  with  English  work. 
Write  story  of  the  Puritans  in  booklet  and  illustrate  with  small 
pictures,  or  decorate  with  appropriate  cover  design. 

For  Christmas  have  pupils  make  calendars,  decorating  with 
holly  leaves  and  berries,  Christmas  tree,  fire  place  or  with  winter 
landscape  or  snow  scene.  Many  appropriate  little  illustrations 
will  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher.  Many  good  suggestions  can 
also  be  secured  from  the  primary  school  journals. 

St.  Valentine's  Day  calls  for  hearts,  arrows,  etc.  These  may  be 
worked  out  both  in  pencil  and  as  construction  work. 

Other  days  that  may  receive  special  attention  are  Washington's 
and  Lincoln's  birthdays;  Easter;  Arbor  Day;  Memorial  Day;  and 
Flag  Day. 

The  autumn  months  can  be  represented  by  appropriate  flowers, 
a  cornfield,  etc. ;  the  winter  months  with  winter  landscapes  and 
snow  scenes ;  the  spring  months  by  buds,  flowers,  leaves,  etc.  These 
can  all  be  used  in  folders,  booklets  and  calendars. 

Calendars  for  the  month  can  be  made  upon  the  blackboard,  us- 
ing various  designs  and  scenes  for  decorative  purposes. 


45 


Fourth,  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades. 

NOTE: — The  remainder  of  this  outline  is  merely  suggestive  as  the 
Outline  of  Studies  does  not  call  for  Drawing  and  Construction  work 
above  the  third  year. 

The  work  in  these  grades  will  follow  largely  the  suggestions  for 
primary  grades.  More  advanced  work  will,  of  course,  be  attempted. 
"While  in  primary  grades  simple  forms  furnish  most  models,  in 
these  grades  more  complex  exercises  may  be  undertaken.  Color 
work  should  be  continued  by  the  use  of  the  crayola.  or  water  colors 
niay  be  substituted  for  the  more  advanced  pupils.  Continue  work 
on  grasses,  flowers,  trees  and  landscapes. 

In  landscape  work  introduce  more  of  detail  than  was  suggested 
in  the  primary  grades.  Hills,  trees,  water,  and  simple  objects  in 
near  relations  to  these  may  be  included. 


Continue  studies  in  color  tending  toward  soft  tones  and  shades. . 
Practice  on  combinations  of  colors  as  red  and  green,  violet  and  yel- 
low, blue  and  orange.    Make  a  color  scale,  giving  three  tones  for 
each  color;  light,  medium,  dark.    Most  work  will  apear  to  best  ad- 
vantage when  done  in  medium  tones. 

Continue  work  in  design  making  use  of  conventional  units. 
These  are  mostly  derived  from  leaf  forms  or  flowers.  Cut  the  unit 
from  paper  and  using  it  as  a  pattern  outline  as  many  times  as  nces- 
sary.  To  have  the  unit  alike  on  both  sides  fold  the  paper  and  cut 
both  sides  at  the  same  time. 

Design  is  one  of  the  practical  applications  of  drawing  and  may 
be  worked  out  in  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Pupils  may  make  any 
number  of  border  designs  using  a  drawing  of  an  actual  leaf,  or 


46 

flower,  or  a.  spray  of  grasses.  Generally,  however,  designs  are  made 
from  conventionalized  forms  of  leaves  and  flowers.  The  ac- 
companying designs  are  from  conventionalized  forms.  Make  a  de- 
sign for  wall  paper. 

Pupils  may  also  begin  to  draw  some  of  the  more  common  fruits 
and  vegetables.  The  banana,  apple,  pear,  melon,  cherry,  peach, 
berry,  pumkin,  beet,  radish,  tomato,  carrot,  onion,  cucumber,  po- 
tato. Color  all  these  fruits  and  vegetables  as  nearly  natural  as 
possible. 


Work  from,  still  life  models  may  be  begun  in  these  grades.  Use 
simple  objects  at  first.  Study  form  and  position.  Get  a  clear  con- 
ception of  the  shape  and  proportion  of  the  object  before  attempt- 
ing to  draw  it.  While  time  must  not  be  wasted  in  useless  inspec- 
tion, on  the  other  hand  it  must  not  be  wasted  by  drawing  before 
the  form  is  clearly  understood.  Get  a  clear  concept  of  the  form, 
then  draw  it. 

First  lessons  on  form  should  be  taught  from  the  board.  The 
teacher  can  thus  show  pupils  how  to  go  about  the  work. 

Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades. 

Draw  from  larger  objects  than  those  used  in  intermediate 
grades.  Study  light  and  shade.  Study  objects  first  at  the  level 
of  the  eye,  then  below  it.  Draw  bowl  or  vase  on  table  or  stand. 
Notice  position  and  draw  table  line.  Note  direction  from  which 
light  comes,  observe  high  lights,  shade  and  shadow.  Combine  ob- 
jects in  groups,  placing  side  by  side,  then  one  slightly  in  front  of 


47 


the  other.  At  first  use  objects  of  the  same  kind,  then  different 
kinds;  as  two  apples,  two  bowls  or  vases,  then  apple  and  banana, 
carrot  and  potato.    Draw  from  real  objects. 

Landscape  work  should  be  continued.  Select  some  desirable 
view  from  the  school  house  window  and  reproduce  it.  Do  not  in- 
clude too  much,  a  bit  of  woodland,  a  brook  passing  through  woods, 
a  country  road  bordered  with  trees,  a  succession  of  hills,  the  sky- 
line over  a  broken  range  of  hills;  the  lane  to  the  cattle  pasture, 
etc. 

In  drawing  sketch  with  road,  or  fence  in  it,  attention  must  be 
given  to  perspective.  Lines  approach  each  other  in  the  distance. 
Study  a  box,  or  book,  or  house  for  this  affect.  Notice  apparent  ap- 
proach of  rails  on  a  railroad.  Apply  the  principle  to  landscape 
work  as  well. 

Study  trees.  Learn  type  forms  of  maple,  oak,  elm,  poplar,  syca- 
more, birch,  hemlock,  pine,  spruce  or  such  others  as  may  be  acces- 
sible from  the  school  or  in  the  neighhorhood. 


PICTUEE  STUDY. 

As  an  aid  to  the  development  of  the  sense  of  beauty,  it  is  well 
to  study  some  of  the  pictures  of  the  great  artists.  Picture  study 
should  be  a  part  of  the  work  in  each  division  of  the  course.  Care 
must  be  exercised  in  the  beginning  to  select  pictures  that  appeal  to 
children.  Again  the  principle  of  simplicity  must  be  borne  in 
mind. 

Pictures  for  first  grade  should  usually  be  those  that  suggest  a 
good  deal  of  action,  or  those  suggesting  matters  clearly  within  the 
child's  own  experience.  Such  pictures  are  always  easier  of  inter- 
pretation. As  the  pupil's  experience,  widens  and  he  has  learned 
better  how  to  interpret  them,  pictures  that  are  more  difficult  may 
be  chosen  for  study. 


48 


The  value  of  picture  study  will  be  heightened  by  studying  the 
painter  at  the  same  time  with  his  picture.  Who  was  he?  "What 
can  you  find  out  about  his  life?  Who  were  his  friends?  What 
kind  of  pictures  did  he  prefer  to  paint?  Was  it  easy  or  hard  for 
him  to  achieve  success?  Why  did  he  paint  the  picture  you  are 
studying?    What  were  the  circumstances  under  which  he  worked? 

All  this  may  be  worked  up  into  a  story  in  the  English  class  and 
may  be  given  orally;  or,  better  still,  written  into  an  essay  and  a 
copy  of  the  picture  mounted  on  the  page. 

There  are  two  elements  in  picture  study — observation  and  inter- 
pretation. Observation,  of  course,  takes  into  account  all  the  laws 
and  rules  of  art  and  judges  of  the  artist's  technique.  Interpreta- 
tion— looks  for  the  meaning  of  the  artists'  work — what  is  its  life 
lesson?  The  artist  means  to  teach  something;  what  does  this  par- 
ticular picture  teach?  How  is  the  lesson  shown?  Great  pictures 
appeal  to  the  deeper  emotions  of  the  human  soul. 

Very  good  pictures  for  study  can  be  secured  from  the  Perry 
Picture  Company,  Maiden,  Mass.,  for  one  cent  each.  Larger  and 
better  prints  can  be  had  at  five  cents  each. 

A  very  good  way  to  secure  some  larger  pictures  for  study  is  to 
buy  some  of  the  better  pictures  and  have  them  framed  and  hung  in 
the  school  room.  This  can  be  done  by  devoting  the  proceeds  of 
some  entertainment  to  this  purpose,  or  by  having  some  society  or 
well-disposed  patrons  donate  them.  Good  pictures  in  the  school 
room  have  a  very  wholesome  effect  on  the  character  of  the  pupils 
and  on  the  discipline  of  the  school. 

Pictures  for  study  in  primary  grades: 
Feeding  her  Birds. — Millet. 
First  Steps.— Millet. 
Hiawatha. — Norris. 
A  Helping  Hand. — Renouf. 
Can't  you  Talk. — Holmes. 
Will  you  Play  With  Me?— Peel. 
Children  Sailing  Their  Boat. — Israel. 

For  intermediate  grades :  • 
•Shepherd  and  his  Flock. — Bonheur. 
Monarch  of  the  Glen. — Landseer. 
The  Watering  Place. — Gainsborough. 
The  Balloon. — Dupre. 
Return  to  the  Farm. — Troyon. 


49 


Dignity  and  Impudence. — Landseer. 
Washington  Crossing  the  Deleware. — Leutze. 

For  grammar  grades : 
Saved. — Landseer. 
Sir  Galahad. — "Watts.  - 
Departure  of  the  Mayflower. — Bayes. 
Song  of  the  Lark. — Breton. 
Dance  of  the  Nymphs. — Corot. 
The  Angelus. — Millet. 
Lincoln. — St.  Gaudens. 

MOTION  SONGS  AND  GAMES. 

General  Suggestions. 

Motion  songs  and  games  are  always  interesting  and  attractive  to 
children  and  the  teacher  can  save  time  by  combining,  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  reading  and  singing  lessons. 

Nearly  all  rhymes  and  poems  taught  in  the  primary,  first,  second 
and  third  grades  are  set  to  music  easily  obtainable,  and  the  children 
love  to  sing  words  they  have  learned  to  recite. 

A  song  should  be  given  the  same  expression  in  singing  it  that 
would  be  given  to  the  same  words  in  reading  them  correctly.  For 
example;  ''Jingle  Bells,  Jingle  Bells,  Jingle  All  the  Way,"  should 
be  sung  in  a  fast,  bright,  light,  airy  manner,  while  "My  Country 
Tis  of  Thee,"  should  be  sung  slowly,  calmly,  majestically. 

A  stop  for  breath  should  only  be  made  at  the  end  of  a  phrase  or 
where  it  will  in  no  way  interfere  with  the  meaning  of  the  words. 
A  ^ood  example  of  this  can  be  found  in  the  last  lines  of  ''Lead 
Kindly  Light".  They  are  often  sung  "Which  I  have  loved 
(breath)  long  since  and  lost  awhile."  They  should  be  sung  "Which 
1  have  loved  long  since,  (breath)  and  lost  awhile. 

A  breath  should  never  be  taken  between  the  syllable  of  a  word 

The  vowel,  or  the  vowel  combination  tone  of  a  word  should  be 
held  the  value  time  of  each  note — while  the  consonants  in  every 
V7ord  are  always  pronounced  very  quickly.  For  example,  in  ' '  Home 
Sweet  Home"  the  vowel  tone  in  'home'  is  held  the  value  time  of 
the  note  given — and  the  'me'  is  pronounced  very  quickly — It  is 
often  sung,  "ho-um" — which,  of  course,  is  a  very  grave  error. 

In  words  where  there  is  a  vowel  combination,  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  hold  the  vowel  combination  tone  in  the  word,  for  there 
is  always  a  tendency  to  make  these  one  syllable  words  sound  as 


50 


though  they  were  two  syllables.  For  example,  tear,  year,  should 
never  be  sun^  te-ur,  ye-ur,  but  the  vowel  combination  tone  'ea* 
should  be  held  the  value  time  of  the  note  and  the  'r'  should  be  pro- 
nounced very  quickly. 

The  following  outline  for  teaching  a  rote  song  will  save  the 
teacher  much  time  and  strengfth.  The  children  will  know  the 
song  before  they  have  ever  really  sung  it.  The  old  way  of  teach- 
ing a  song  by  singing  one  phrase  over  and  over  is  to  be  especially 
avoided. 

First,  teach  the  words  of  the  song  until  the  pupils  can  repeat 
them  easily.  If  not  familiar  with  the  words  and  idea  of  the  song  it 
will  be  difficult  for  them  to  follow  the  melody,  as  sung  in  the  proper 
time  and  no  song  should  ever  be  sung  to  the  pupil  out  of  correct 
^Hime"  or  speed. 

The  second  step  in  learning  the  song  should  be  for  the  pupils  to 
listen  carefully  and  attentively  while  the  teacher  sings  the  song 
to  them  very  softly — being  careful  to  have  the  tone  clear,  sweet 
and  with  no  ''nasal  twang."  After  the  children  have  listened  to 
the  song  several  times  they  may  be  allowed  to  move  their  lips  and 
"pretend  they  are  singing"  or  "play  they  are  singing"  with  the 
teacher.  This  will  train  them  in  the  important  idea  of  watching 
her  mouth  as  she  sings  the  song  for  them.  When  this  is  ac- 
complished satisfactorily  the  teacher  should  allow  the  children  to 
sing  with  her,  very  softly;  always  softly  and  sweetly — since  a  loud 
nasal  or  throaty  voice  cultivated  in  the  small  child  will  cling  to  it 
through  life  and  probably  keep  a  really  fine  natural  voice  from  de- 
veloping. 

;  A  great  help  in  teaching  children  to  sing  sweetly,  softly  and  clear- 
ly will  be  to  correct  the  child's  way  of  talking,  if  at  all  harsh,  nasal 
or  too  loud.  Here  again  reading  and  singing  go  hand  in  hand. 
People  often  fail  to  realize  how  much  they  lose  or  gain  in  personal- 
ity by  their  speaking  voice.  One  can  recall  having  known  many 
really  superior  people  who  were  unattractive  personally  because 
of  never  having  taken  the  trouble  to  overcome  a  high-pitched,  loud, 
nasal  or  otherwise  unattractive  voice. 

Pupils  should  be  allowed  and  encouraged  to  sing  alone,  so  as  to 
overcome  their  natural  timidity  in  regard  to  expressing  themselves 
in  song. 

First  Grade. 

The  old  motion  songs  "Ball  for  Baby,"  "Shoemaker  Song," 


51 


* '  Thumbkins  says,  I  dance, "  "  This  is  the  Dolly  that  I  Love  Best, ' ' 
"Down  the  Long  Highway  to  Santa  Claus  Land,"  are  always  new 
and  interesting  to  each  boy  and  girl  in  turn  as  they  start  to  school. 
Nearly  every  large  publishing  house  issues  a  book  of  ' '  Motion  Songs 
and  Games ' '  from  any  one  of  which  can  be  selected  work  to  combine 
with  the  songs  and  games  given  in  the  Congdon  Song  Books. 

WRITING. 

The  aim  should  be  to  train  every  child  to  write  a  neat  legible 
hand  with  facility.  This  aim  can  be  accomplished  only  through  a 
persistent  drill  throughout  a  number  of  grades.  Proper  materials, 
position,  and  movement  deserve  especial  attention  in  the  lower 
grades.  Let  it  be  understood  that  this  subject  in  the  primary  and 
intermediate  grades  should  have  a  regular  place  on  the  program. 
If  not  a  daily  recitation  it  should  be  as  often  as  time  will  permit. 
The  class  periods  should  not  be  fewer  than  three  per  week. 

Materials:  For  the  larger  part  of  the  first  year  the  blackboard 
and  crayon  furnish  the  best  materials  for  the  pupil's  practice.  The 
exercises  should  be  large  general  forms  such  as  demand  the  develop- 
ment of  the  larger  muscles.  The  slate  is  objectionable  in  all 
grades.  After  blackboard  drills  use  practice  paper  of  good 
quality;  use  copy  book  No.  1,  and  exercise  book  for  other  written 
work.  A  broad  smooth  pen  with  large  straight  holder  tipped  with 
cork  or  rubber — the  metal  tip  holder  should  not  be  used — a  large 
pencil  with  good  smooth  lead,  good  non-corrosive  ink;  the  desks 
for  writing  as  well  as  for  all  other  work  should  be  adjustable.  If 
for  any  cause  the  pupil  must  occupy  a  desk  not  suited  to  his  size  he 
should  be  allowed  to  change  his  seat  for  the  writing  exercise. 

Position:  The  pupil  should  sit  either  squarely  in  front  of  the 
desk  or  with  the  right  side  just  a  little  nearer  to  the  desk  than  the 
left  side.  The  feet  should  rest  flatly  upon  the  floor.  The  body 
should  incline  forward  from  the  hips.  The  head  should  not  in- 
cline to  either  side,  and  the  shoulders  should  not  droop.  The  left 
arm  should  be  placed  upon  the  desk ;  the  right  one  should  rest  upon 
the  desk  upon  the  muscle  of  the  forearm  and  the  tips  or  nails  of  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers ;  if  the  arm  is  unhampered  by  clothing  this 
will  give  an  opportunity  for  a  free  easy  movement. 

Movement :  The  free  use  of  the  muscles  is  essential  in  order  to 
attain  the  aim  as  given  above.    Large  spaced  paper — arm  off  desk — 


52 


later  arm  rested.  Much  practice  should  be  given  in  moving  the 
arm  out  and  in  the  sleeve  without  slipping  the  sleeve  on  the  desk. 
The  object  should  be  to  gain  control  over  the  muscles  of  the  arm. 

Method  and  i^uhject -Matter:  In  the  primary  grades  the  pupils 
should  learn  to  make  letters  and  figures  upon  the  board.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  first  year  or  the  beginning  of  the  second  they  may  be 
allowed  to  use  paper  and  pencil.  It  is  well  here  to  give  some  drill 
upon  the  up  and  down  straight  line  exercises,  also  upon  oval  exer- 
cises. The  teacher  shouold  place  models  upon  the  board  and  call 
attention  to  the  movements  necessary  to  make  the  same.  After 
some  skill  has  been  attained  in  these  simple  exercises  and  a  fair  con- 
ception of  the  form  of  the  letters  and  figures  acquired,  coarse  pens 
and  ink  should  be  used  instead  of  pencils. 

After  this,  much  attention  should  be  given  to  the  correct  forms 
of  letters  and  to  practicing  such  exercises  which  will  contribute  to 
the  execution  of  the  same.  Practice  upon  the  straight  line,  the 
right  curve,  left  curve,  the  loop,  the  upright  and  elongated  ovals. 
The  copy  in  the  copy  book  should  be  referred  to  as  a  test  of  the  work 
already  done ;  the  copy  to  be  imitated  by  the  pupils  should  be  placed 
upon  the  board  by  the  teacher,  and  so  emphasized  that  the  pupils 
will  have  in  mind  an  image  by  which  to  direct  their  own  work.  In 
the  upper  grades  more  attention  should  be  given  to  word,  sentences 
and  page  writing. 

Every  writing  exercise  should  be  carefully  planned  and  should 
have  an  aim.  For  example,  the  teacher  may  say,  in  any  grade 
above  the  third  let  us  find  out  more  about  the  correct  form  of  a 
and  how  to  make  it.  The  teacher  then  writes  a  upon  the  board, 
calls  attention  to  its  curves  and  straight  lines  and  the  movement  of 
the  muscles  necessary  to  make  it.  The  pupils  may  then  be  required 
as  a  part  of  the  preparation  to  make  a  few  straight  lines  and  curves ; 
after  this  the  pupils  should  attempt  to  execute  the  correct  form. 
At  times  during  the  exercises  the  correct  printed  form  may  be 
passed  to  the  pupil  so  that  he  may  verify  his  work.  At  closing  the 
teacher  should  ascertain  whether  the  pupil  has  a  better  mental 
picture  of  the  letter  than  he  had  at  the  beginning.  This  may  be 
done  by  asking  the  pupil  to  state  what  points  he  especially  tried  to 
improve  during  the  exercise. 

The  copy  books  now  in  use  in  the  schools  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain many  valuable  exercises  and  suggestions.  As  has  been  said 
let  the  teacher  use  the  copy  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  work  already 
done  rather  than  as  a  guide.    Place  the  copy  on  the  board  and 


53 


have  the  children  get  a  mental  picture  of  the  form  of  each  word; 
then  let  them  execute  the  form  and  compare  with  the  copy  in  the 
copy-book.  The  copy  in  the  copy-book  may  be  covered  with  paper 
or  paste-board  while  the  pupil  executes  his  work;  then  it  may  be 
removed  for  comparison. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Reading  (History  and  Literature.) 

In  the  second  year  observe  the  directions  of  the  first  year.  Use 
the  blackboard,  pictures,  drawings,  objects  and  conversations  to 
provide  clear  images,  ideas,  and  meaning  for  the  children.  The 
work  done  in  the  first,  second  and  third  grades  will  determine,  for 
the  most  part  the  facility  and  effectiveness  with  which  children 
will  read  later  in  school  and  in  adult  life.  Do  not  accept  any  read- 
ing unless  the  pupils  have  a  clear  notion  of  the  meaning.  To  fail 
to  observe  this  is  to  impair  the  mind  of  the  child. 

The  adopted  second  reader  and  one  or  more  readers  of  equal 
grade  should  be  completed  this  year. 

Seat  Work:  All  seat  work  should  have  a  definite  end  in  view  and 
be  inspected  by  the  teacher.  Cards  with  sentences  that  may  be  ar- 
ranged to  make  a  story  and  cards  with  words  to  make  sentences  may 
be  used.  The  children  should  illustrate  the  stories  by  drawings  on 
blackboard  or  on  paper  and  by  cuttings  from  paper,  etc. 

Word  Study:  Begin  with  simple  breathing  exercises.  Then 
pronounce  short  words  with  long  vowel  prominent  by  pronouncing 
the  word  slowly.  In  this  way  find  the  elementary  sounds  and  let- 
ters of  easy  words.  Let  the  word  study  of  sounds  and  letters  be  in 
separate  period  from  the  reading. 

Spelling :  Make  lists  of  words  used  by  the  children  in  their  writ- 
ing, such  words  as  give  some  difficulty  in  spelling.  Have  the  pupils 
study  these  short  daily  lists  of  five  or  six  words  and  write  or  spell 
the  words  orally. 

Literature :  In  the  first  and  second  years  the  literature  and  stor- 
ies should  for  the  most  part  be  told  or  read  to  the  children  by  the 
teacher. 

The  following  books  and  selections  may  be  used  in  the  first  and 
second  years : 

Bryant — How  to  tell  Stories  to  Children.  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co., 
$1.00. 

Bryant — Stories  to  tell  Children.    Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  $1.00. 


54 

Dopp — The  Tree  Dwellers.    Rand,  McNally,  45  cents. 
O'Shea — Six  Nursery  Classics.    Heath  &  Co.,  20  cents. 
Stevenson — Child's  Garden  of  Verse.    Flanagan,  40  cents. 
Williams — Classic  Literature.     American  Book  Co.    Book  one 
for  primary  grades  22  cents,  -book  two  for  primary  grades,  25  cents. 
Bradish — Stoi»ies  of  Country  Life.    American  Book  Co.,  40  cents. 
Dopp — Early  Cave  Men.    Eand,  McNally,  45  cents. 

NATURE  STUDY. 

Suggestions  for  the  second  year's  work  are  given  in  connection 
with  the  first  year's  work  which  should  be  consulted. 

DRAWING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  WORK. 

See  suggestions  as  given  for  this  work  in  the  first  year. 

MOTION  SONGS  AND  GAMES. 

Review  the  motion  songs  and  games  used  in  the  first  year.  Songs 
from  the  Congdon  Music  Primer  can  be  supplemented  by  such 
songs  as  "Land  of  Nod,"  ''Baby's  Boat  a  Silver  Moon,"  "  Little 
Bo-peep,"  "Little  Boy  Blue,"  etc.  These  songs  may  be  further 
supplemented  by  singing  some  of  the  poems  taught  in  these  grades 
which  can  usually  be  secured  from  any  good  publishing  house  or 
by  applying  to  the  State  Department  of  Schools.  Children  in  this 
grade  love  to  sing  such  songs  as  "My  Country  'Tis  of  Thee"  and 
"The  West  Virginia  Hills." 

ARITHMETIC. 

General  Suggestions. 

It  is  quite  generally  admitted  no^v  that  no  formal  recitations  in 
arithmetic  should  be  conducted  the  first  year  of  the  primary  grades. 
The  pupil's  experience  in  play  and  in  his  other  work  in  the  school 
room,  if  the  teacher  exercises  some  care,  is  sufficient  to  give  him  such 
a  working  appreciation  of  number,  as,  with  greater  age,  will  enable 
him  to  do  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  much  during  the  second  year  as 
during  the  first  two  years  in  formal  number  work. 

As  we  advance  in  the  grades,  the  teaching  of  any  process  should 
begin  with  a  problem  which  can  be  thought  out  by  the  child,  and 
much  oral  work  should  precede  written  work  in  the  introduction 
of  a  new  topic.    Definition  and  rule  have  small  value  in  initial 


55 


help,  and  should  be  omitted  from  the  lower  grades.  Problems- 
should  be  solved  orally  whenever  it  is  possible,  and  should  be  drawn 
from  the  interests  and  experiences  of  the  children.  No  set  forms 
of  analysis  or  explanation  should  be  required.  In  general,  the 
clear  thinking  of  a  problem  with  the  correct  result  embodied  in 
good  English,  is  all  sufficient.  The  fundamental  operations  should 
be  so  thoroughly  mastered  that  their  mechanics  will  never  retard 
thinking.  Intelligent  drill  is  absolutely  essential — the  teacher  be- 
ing, however,  a  master  of  drill,  and  not  a  drill  master.  Five  min- 
utes spent  each  day  in  drill  work  in  making  rapid  number  com- 
binations, is  very  valuable. 

Clear  thought  may  be  secured  by  correlating  the  arithmetic  work 
with  other  school  work,  with  the  home  life  of  the  pupils,  and  by 
using  small  numbers.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  note  carefully 
what  is  given  in  each  problem  and  what  is  to  he  found.  Doing  this 
saves  time  and  prevents  trying  various  ways  simply  to  get  the 
answer.  Ordinarily,  very  little  ,if  any,  home  work  should  be  as- 
signed to  pupils  below  the  fifth  grade. 

All  principles,  whose  use  in  actual  life  is  restricted  to  special- 
ists, and  aU  problems  based  on  those  principles,  should  be  omitted 
from  the  course  of  study  for  an  elementary  school. 

Perhaps  most  teachers  can  best  teach  correct  principles  by  fol- 
lowing a  good  text-book  closely  as  a  guide,  and  supplementing  this 
with  problems,  the  answers  of  which  have  not  been  given  the  pupil. 
Any  radical  departure  from  the  general  plan  of  the  text  should 
bo  carefully  considered.  But  be  sure  to  teach  principles  and  pro- 
cesses and  not  so  many  pages  of  the  book. 

Make  frequent  use  of  the  blackboard,  but  use  pencil  and  tab- 
let sparingly.  It  is  better  that  a  pupil  go  to  class  with  his  prepara- 
tion in  his  head  than  on  his  tablet. 

Numter  Work  in  Second  Grade. 

All  mathematical  topics  of  this  grade  are  taught  in  connection 
with  the  other  activities  of  the  grade,  such  as  drawing,  construction 
work,  nature  study,  plays  and  games,  songs  and  collection  and  dis- 
tribution of  material.  So  far  as  the  children  are  concerned,  the 
form  and  number  work  is  taught  incidentally,  but  In  the  mind  of 
the  teacher  it  is  thoroughly  organized,  both  as  to  the  truths  to  be 
presented  and  the  time  and  method  of  presentation. 

Most  pupils  wiU  have  learned  to  count;  some  attention  should 
be  giv:;n  to  those  who  have  not.    Objects  are  counted,  using  cardi- 


56 


nal  numbers.  They  are  compared  to  develop  notions  of  inequality 
or  equality.  When  the  desire  arises  to  know  how  much  longer  or 
sJiorter,  larger  or  smaller,  one  object  is  than  another,  appropriate 
measuring  units  are  used. 

By  comparison  ideas  are  gained  of  the  square-cornered  solid, 
cylinder,  sphere,  square,  oblong,  triangular,  and  circular  surfaces; 
straight  and  curved  lines. 

In  drawing,  measuring  and  cutting  involved  in  making  boxes, 
booklets,  doll  furniture  and  other  construction  work,  the  need  for 
counting  and  many  of  the  simpler  combination  and  separation  facts 
is  felt  by  the  children.  The  same  is  true,  in  a  measure,  of  all  other 
activities  of  the  grade,  especially  in  arranging  for  the  playing  of 
games. 

Remember  that  all  the  work  in  this  grade  is  to  be  taught  inci- 
dentally with  the  activities  mentioned  above,  and  no  book  is  to  be 
given  the  pupils.  One  of  the  best  books  for  the  teacher  to  use  as  a 
guide  in  this  grade  is  ''First  Journeys  in  Number  Land,"  by  Har- 
ris-Waldo, published  by  Scott,  Foresman  &  Chicago. 

Writing. 
See  suggestions  under  first  year. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

BEADING  (HISTORY  AND  LITERATUKE.) 

In  this  year  finish  the  adopted  third  reader  and  one  or  more 
readers  of  equal  grade.  Pupils  should  do  silent  reading  under 
teacher's  guidance.    The  oral  reading  should  be  clear  and  distinct. 

Reading  may  be  thought  of  as  the  valuation  of  words,  assigning 
values  to  words.  Have  the  pupils  see  that  the  meaning  changes  as 
different  values  are  given  to  the  words.  The  teacher  should  illus- 
trate this  by  reading  for  the  pupils. 

Word  Study:  Simple  breathing  exercises.  Elementary  sounds 
practiced — a,  i,  e,  a,  o,  the  initial  and  final  consonants  p,  t,  b,  s,  m, 
n,  g,  word  building  with  familiar  sounds. 

Seat  Work :  Study  assignment  made  in  class.  Silent  reading  of 
supplementary  books.  Find  whether  pupils  know  alphabet.  Make 
little  booklets  for  dictionaries.    Use  some  diacritical  marks. 

Spelling:  Make  lists  of  words  used  by  pupils  in  their  written  and 
oral  work.    Have  the  pupils  study  the  daily  lists  of  six  or  eight 


57 


words  and  use  them,  in  sentences.  Have  written  and  oral  spelling 
occasionally. 

Literature :  The  oral  literature  and  stories  should  continue  in 
the  third  year.  The  teacher's  telling  stories  and  reading  liter- 
ature to  the  pupils  should  decrease  and  the  pupils'  reading  in- 
crease during  this  year.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  literature 
is  sufficiently  easy  for  the  pupil  to  read.  The  child's  mind  must 
not  be  taxed  with  the  words  and  phraseology. 

Composition:  From  the  first  year  in  school  the  children  should 
be  given  abundant  opportunity  to  tell  the  stories  they  have  learned 
and  to  use  correct  English  in  all  they  say  or  write  in  every  lesson. 
In  the  second  year  this  kind  of  work  should  be  increased  somewhat. 
In  the  third  year  there  should  be  considerable  amount  of  oral  and 
some  written  composition.  The  manner  of  telling  the  stories  and 
reciting  all  oral  work  should  be  supervised  with  care.  The  teacher 
should  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  language  book  in  the  fourth  year. 
To  this  end  the  teacher  should  introduce  some  of  the  same  kind  of 
work  the  pupil  will  have  in  the  fourth  year.  This  work  should  be 
simpler  than  that  in  the  text  book. 

The  following  books  may  be  used  by  the  teacher  and  pupils  for 
the  stories  and  literature : 

Burt — Poems  Every  Child  Should  Know.  Doubleday,  Page., 
90  cents. 

Mabie— Norse  Stories.    Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.  $1.80. 

Baldwin — Old  Stories  of  the  East.    American  Book  Co.    45  cts. 

Dopp — Later  Cave  Men.    Rand  McNally.    45  cents. 

Kipling — Just  So  Stories.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.  $1.20. 

"Williams — Choice  Literature.  American  Book  Co.  Book  1 
intermediate.  28  cents. 

Baldwin — Fifty  Famous  Stories  Eetold.  American  Book  Co. 
35  cents. 

Norton — Heart  of  Oak  books.    Heath,  Book  3,  20  cents. 

NATURE  STUDY. 

Third  and  Fourth  Grades. 

Nature  study  and  home  geography  should  be  the  same  course  in 
the  third  grade.  Both  should  be  on  an  observation  basis,  and  the 
materials  of  home  geography  are  essentially  nature  material. 
Houses,  streets,  land  surfaces,  drainage,  hills,  streams,  transporta- 


58 


tion,  maps  and  local  conditions  all  furnish  excellent  topics  for 
nature  study. 

(1)  .  How  we  are  sheltered  ;  study  the  materials  used  in  building 
our  homes — sources  and  places  of  preparation, 

(2)  .  How  we  are  clothed;  study  materials  of  clothing,  sources 
and  process  of  manufacturing. 

(3)  .  How  we  are  fed;  this  general  topic  furnishes  an  oppor- 
tunity for  a  study  of  all  the  farming  interests,  implements  for  culti- 
vation and  means  for  transportation.  As  you  study  each  of  the 
above,  visit  all  the  local  industries — the  flour  mill,  the  saw  mill,  the 
store,  the  glove  factory,  the  brick  yard,  and  others. 

Make  weather  observations.  Observe  the  effect  of  the  change  of 
seasons  upon  the  occupation  of  the  people  of  the  community.  Study 
the  work  of  running  water  in  cutting  gullies  in  the  hill  sides  and 
valleys,  in  depositing  their  loads  and  forming  deltas.  Go  to  stream, 
study  life.    Map  it. 

Geography  will  be  taken  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  grade 
so  the  class  in  nature  study  may  pursue  the  following  topics : 

Animals :  Note  how  animals  are  prepared  for  cold  weather,  al- 
so for  warm  weather.  Study  the  sheep,  the  cow,  the  horse;  struc- 
ture, habits,  food,  and  disposition;  relatives  of  the  sheep — goats, 
deer,  antelope.  Cattle  and  sheep  ranches;  uses  to  man.  Study 
hibernating  animals  such  as  the  ground-hog,  bear,  raccoon,  mole. 
Earth  worms  and  their  uses  to  man.  Birds  and  bats  and  their  im- 
portance to  the  farmer.  Household  insects;  habits,  life  histories, 
and  methods  of  exterminating  fleas,  lice,  and  bedbugs;  make  a 
special  study  of  the  fly — its  development,  manner  of  life,  where  it 
feeds,  how  it  may  carry  disease  germs,  and  how  dangerous  it  is  to 
man ;  teach  in  detail  methods  of  exterminating  the  fly. 

Drawing  and  Constmction  Work. 

See  suggestions  for  this  work  as  given  in  the  flrst  year. 

NUMBERS. 

The  arithmetic  facts  learned  incidentally  in  the  second  grade 
are  here  extended  and  the  method  of  presentation  continued. 

If  the  book  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupil,  the  first  three 
chapters  of  the  primary  book  of  the  adopted  text  are  to  be  com- 
pleted in  this  year;  the  first  chapter,  most  of  which  will  already 
be  known  to  the  child  from  the  work  of  the  previous  grade,  will 


59 


take  but  little  time,  and  this  and  the  second  chapter  should  be 
finished  in  the  first  half-year;  the  third  chapter  in  the  remaining 
half  of  the  third  grade  or  year. 

All  tables  to  and  including  tens,  both  in  multiplication  and  di- 
vision ,are  taught  thoroughly  along  with  multiplication  and  short 
division;  simple  factoring  can  easily  be  taught  with  division  and 
multiplication  as  presented  in  the  text.  Many  opportunities  pre- 
sent themselves  for  introducing  small  fractions. 

If  the  following  materials  and  articles  are  not  already  at  hand, 
they  must  be  secured ;  it  is  necessary  to  have  these,  or  more,  in  order 
to  present  the  subject  of  numbers  with  interest  and  facility  in  the 
primary  grades;  foot  rulers  , marked  to  quarters  or  eighths  of  an 
inch,  scissors,  paste-board  inch  squares,  at  least  one  hundred  inch 
cubes,  a  box  of  small  rubber  bands,  splints,  yard  sticks,  pint,  quart, 
peck  and  gallon  measures,  cards  about  three  by  five  inches  for  table 
vfork,  and  a  quantity  of  sand,  bran,  corn,  or  some  other  convenient 
material  for  measuring  purposes.  Each  pupil  should  have  his  own 
foot  rule,  and  at  least  forty  card-board  inch  squares. 

The  skillful  teacher  will  find  many  ways  to  use  the  above  mater- 
ials, a  few  of  which  are  here  suggested. 

Compare  children  as  to  height,  compare  the  length  of  objects  in 
the  school  room,  and  when  the  child  has  learned  to  count  the  inches 
on  the  ruler,  have  the  comparisons  already  made,  verified  by  actual 
measurement.  Have  the  child  to  measure  lines  drawn  on  the  board 
and  to  draw  lines  of  definite  length  and  verify  with  ruler.  In  us- 
ing the  measures  of  quantity  have  children  to  actually  do  the  meas- 
uring, starting  with  the  simpler  ones  and  developing  the  subject. 
Cut  strips  of  paper  of  various  widths  and  lengths  and  have  pupils 
to  choose  at  sight  sizes  called  for  by  the  teacher  or  another  pupil. 
Have  pupils  draw  triangles,  squares  and  rectangles  and,  also,  build 
with  small  squares  larger  squares  and  rectangles.  Teach  the  cor- 
rect names  of  these  plane  figures. 

By  actual  measuring  solve  such  problems  as  the  following: 
How  tall  are  you?  How  wide  is  the  door?  How  long  and  how 
wide  is  your  book,  etc.  ?  (Measure  in  feet  and  inches.)  Many  such 
problems  as  these  should  be  solved.  It  is  well  to  have  pupils  esti- 
mate answer  before  solving.  This  trains  them  to  observe  closely 
and  to  judge  accurately.  Many  interesting  contests  can  be  had 
where  time  offers  opportunity. 

Games,  such  as  bean-bag,  ring-toss  and  plnying  store,  furnish 
many  occasions  for  the  thoughtful  use  of  numbers.    In  these  games 


60 


the  score,  or  account,  of  each  pupil,  is  computed  orally  by  the 
pupil  at  first,  and  kept  by  the  teacher  on  the  blackboard.  Later, 
it  is  kept  by  the  pupil  on  the  blackboard  or  on  paper.  Such  exer- 
cises furnish  excellent  means  for  setting  the  formal  machinery  of 
numbers  in  action. 

The  result  of  work  carried  on  as  above,  enables  the  pupil  to  read 
and  write  numbers  of  one,  two  and  three  orders ;  to  read  time  by  the 
clock  to  hour,  half-hour,  quarter-hour ;  to  answer  any  of  the  forty- 
five  addition  and  subtraction  facts : 

1  2  3  4  5  6  7  892345678934567  8 
1    1    1    1    1    1    1  1122222222333333 


94567895678967897898  9  9 
3444444555556666777889 


to  make  change  within  one  dollar;  to  recognize  related  units  of 
measure,  such  as  inch,  foot;  minute,  hour,  day,  week;  pint,  quart, 
cent,  nickle,  dime,  quarter,  half-dollar,  dollar;  to  use  the  tables  to 
and  including  tens. 

Children  should  know  the  above  mentioned  forty-five  number 
facts  so  well  that  when  they  see  ^  thirteen  should  appear,  or 
they  should  think  thirteen,  just  as,  if  properly  taught  in  reading, 
they  think  of  apple  when  they  see  the  word  symbol,  and  the  com- 
bination ^  should  not  enter  into  consciousness  any  more  than  the 
letters  into  apple;  they  should  also  know  the  tables  to  tens  well 
enough  to  use  them  quite  rapidly  in  performing  operations,  but,  of 
course,  more  skill  will  be  acquired  as  the  pupil  advances. 

LANGUAGE. 

The  language  work  of  the  first  three  years  is  mostly  incidental, 
growing  out  of  and  connected  with  other  things.  In  the  third  grade 
some  slight  reference  is  made  to  the  language  work  under  the  sub- 
ject of  Reading  with  the  paragraph  heading  composition.  For  a 
full  discussion  of  the  teaching  of  this  subject  see  fourth  year. 

WRITING. 

See  first  year. 


61 


FOURTH  TEAK. 

Reading  {History  and  Literature.) 

Keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  reading  is  a  search  for  ideas.  The 
study  of  sounds,  letters,  words,  pronunciation,  is  only  a  means  to 
reading.  These  unclassical  phases  should  be  at  the  minimum 
during  the  reading  lesson.  Word  recognition  is  only  a  means; 
reading  is  rather  looking  through  the  words  for  the  ideas  and 
meaning  which  the  symbols  call  up  in  the  reader's  mind. 

In  the  fourth  school  year  finish  the  fourth  reader  of  the  series  in 
use  and  the  equivalent  of  a  supplementary  reader  of  the  same 
grade. 

Plan  your  work  to  give  variety.  Use  sight  reading  often.  Bring 
to  your  school  appropriate  reading  material  you  find  in  newspapers, 
journals,  magazines  and  books.  There  are  many  ways  to  use  the 
one  article  you  have  to  good  advantage.  It  is  possible  to  provide 
for  better  motive,  a  thing  rarely  found  in  the  upper  grade  reading 
recitation,  than  with  the  readers  in  use.  One  or  more  pupils  may 
prepare  the  article  to  read  to  the  class  or  the  selection  may  be  read 
at  sight  by  passing  it  from  pupil  to  pupil.  In  either  case  you  have 
normal  conditions,  a  search  for  ideas,  by  one  who  is  presenting  the 
symbols  to  the  ears  of  a  real  audience. 

The  test  of  silent  reading  is  the  quick,  accurate  getting  of  the 
thought;  of  oral  reading  the  test  is  the  symbols  presented  to  the 
ears  of  other  people  in  such  a  way  as  to  compel  correct  interpreta- 
tion. 

Seat  work  similar  to  that  of  the  third  year.  Place  questions  on 
the  board  to  guide  study.  Supervise  the  study  of  pupils  to  avoid 
waste  of  time  and  energy  and  incorrect  habits  of  study. 

Word  Study: — Continue  study  of  letters,  sounds,  combinations 
of  letters  and  sounds,  prefixes  and  suffixes,  and  booklets  for  diction- 
aries. By  the  end  of  this  year  the  pupils  should  be  able  to  use  an 
elementary  dictionary  with  accuracy  and  facility  for  the  spelling 
and  pronunciation  of  words. 

THE  PIED  PIPER. 

Outline : 

Setting  of  Story. 
The  Plague. 
The  Pied  Piper. 
The  Bargain. 


62 


The  Plague  Removed. 
The  Broken  Promise. 
The  Piper's  Revenge. 

The  Pied  Piper. 

Aim. — To  help  the  class  to  enjoy  the  poem  and  to  read  it  with 
appreciation. 

Preparation : — Read  the  whole  poem  to  the  class  as  dramatically 
as  possible.  Have  the  class  look  up  new  words.  Give  them  mean- 
ing of  ' '  pied, "  ' '  guilder. ' ' 

Did  you  like  the  poem  as  I  read  it  ?    Was  there  any  humor  in  it  ? 

"Where?  Did  these  things  seem  funny  to  the  Hamelin  people? 
"Whom  did  they  blame  for  their  trouble?  What  threat  did  they 
make?  What  do  you  think  of  the  Mayor?  Why  did  the  "tap" 
frighten  him  ?  Tell  me  how  the  Pied  Piper  looked  when  he  stepped 
into  the  room?  What  do  you  like  about  him?  If  you  had  been  on 
the  street  when  he  blew  his  pipe  what  would  you  have  seen  ?  Why 
did  the  rats  follow  the  Pied  Piper?  How  did  the  Hamelin  people 
act  when  the  rats  were  drowned  ?  How  much  money  did  the  Mayor 
promise  the  Pied  Piper?  How  much  does  he  now  want  to  pay? 
What  excuse  does  he  make  ?  What  do  you  think  of  the  Mayor  now  ? 
What  revenge  does  the  Piper  take?  What  do  you  think  he 
promised  the  children?  What  became  of  the  Piper  and  the  chil- 
dren? Did  you  ever  hear  the  old  saying  "You  must  pay  the 
Piper"?  What  does  it  mean?  What  lines  do  you  like  best? 
What  lesson  did  the  Hamelin  people  learn  ? 

I  NATURE  STUDY. 

See  suggestions  for  third  grade. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

General  Suggesstions. 

The  work  of  the  first  years  in  this  study  should  be  almost  ex- 
clusively pertaining  to  Hygiene,  with  the  purpose  of  securing 
health  and  right  habits  of  living  in  the  child,  rather  than  much 
formal  knowledge  of  anatomy  of  physiology.  It  should  not  be 
made  an  attempt  to  crowd  immatured  minds  with  dead  and  mean- 
ingless names  and  terms  and  lists,  but  should  be  an  effort  to  teach 
the  child  to  live,  in  his  work  and  play  and  rest,  under  right  con- 
ditions, both  as  to  his  external  surroundings  and  as  to  the  internal 


63 


conditions  of  his  mind  and  body.  A  weak,  anaemic,  stooping  child 
who  knows  physiology  is  not  much  credit  to  any  school;  a  strong, 
healthy  and  vigorous  child  who  lives  hygienically  is  a  fine  product 
of  any  system  of  education. 

The  subject  is  not  asigned  a  place  on  the  daily  program  dur- 
ing the  first  school  years.  It  is  expected,  however,  that  some  in- 
struction can  be  given  in  connection  with  the  work  that  is  done  un- 
der the  heading  Nature  Study.  In  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  grades  one 
lesson  per  week  should  be  given  regularly,  coming  at  one  of  the 
Nature  Study  periods,  and  it  should  be  given  on  the  same  day  each 
week. 

During  the  first  three  years  of  school  life,  a  considerable  amount 
of  work  in  the  subject  may  be  given,  growing  out  of  and  connected 
with  many  other  lessons  and  events  of  the  school.  As  far  as  possi- 
ble, from  the  very  first  year,  the  teacher  should  look  after  the 
child's  habits,  in  everything  that  relates  to  his  health,  strength  and 
growth.  For  instance,  she  should  exercise  continual  care  over  the 
matter  of  seating  the  children;  for  it  necessarily  happens  that,  in 
many  schools,  the  seating  is  illy  adapted  to  the  children  in  attend- 
ance. A  seat  or  desk  either  too  high  or  too  low  causes  not  only 
present  discomfort,  but  often  future  disability  or  ailment.  By 
judicious  assignment  of  seats,  or  by  some  little  arrangement  for  a 
foot  rest,  or  by  raising  the  seat  a  little  higher,  or  by  slight  changes  of 
work — by  these  and  smaller  devices  the  teacher  can  do  much  to  cor- 
rect these  faulty  conditions.  Time  needed  for  these  things  is 
sometimes  for  more  profitably  spent  than  it  would  be  in  hearing  a 
class  recite. 

Then,  even  in  the  first  year,  children  may  be  told  in  a  simple 
way,  that  dirt  is  full  of  poisonous  substances,  and  may  easily  cause 
disease.  The  child  should  be  warned  not  to  touch  a  person  or  thing 
that  is  dirty.  Each  school  house  should  be  required  to  have  a  basin 
and  water  always  at  hand,  by  which  pupils  who  have  dirty  hands 
and  faces  may  clean  them.  The  youngest  children  should  be  taught 
something  about  the  care  of  the  teeth ;  for  instance,  that  they  should 
be  kept  clean;  that  it  is  dangerous  to  eat  anything  that  is  too  hot, 
or  too  cold  and  that  they  should  not  crack  nuts  with  their  teeth,  for 
danger  of  breaking  the  enamel;  that  as  soon  as  cavities  are  dis- 
covered, or  a  tooth  begins  to  ache,  they  should  see  a  dentist. 

From  the  very  first,  children  should  be  taught  to  keep  proper 
positions  of  the  body.  The  head  should  be  held  up,  and  slightly 
back ;  the  chin  slightly  drawn  in  and  down,  the  chest  thrown  up  and 


64 


out.  It  might  be  well,  occasionally,  at  recess  and  other  proper 
times,  to  have  a  little  drill  in  proper  standing.  Call  attention  to 
the  soldier's  bearing  for  the  children's  imitation.  Show  the  chil- 
dren a  gnarled  and  twisted  tree,  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that 
this  condition  was  caused  by  the  tree's  being  bent  or  twisted  when 
it  was  young.  Teach  them  to  stand  squarely  on  both  feet,  and  to 
avoid  a  slouching  position  in  which  the  weight  falls  principally  on 
one  foot.  In  some  respects,  the  sitting  posture  of  the  child  is  even 
more  important  than  that  of  standing.  He  should  not  be  allowed 
to  become  slouchy,  or  to  stoop  too  much  over  his  work,  or  to  slide 
forward  in  his  seat,  so  that  he  sits  on  the  small  of  his  back,  or  to 
lean  too  much  on  one  side. 

The  smaller  children,  even  more  than  the  older  ones,  need  at- 
tention as  regards  the  conditions  that  effect  the  skin,  such  as  dry- 
ness, warmth,  etc.  Pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  sit  in  a  room 
with  damp  clothing  on.  They  should  be  taught  the  danger  of  get- 
ting their  feet  cold,  by  wading  in  snow,  water,  etc.  Do  not,  for  the 
sake  of  discipline  or  other  reasons,  forbid  children  to  dry  and  warm 
themselves  at  the  stove.  Pupils  should  be  cautioned  against  cooling 
off  too  rapidly  when  warm  from  exercise.  In  the  ventilation  of 
the  room,  draft  falling  on  pupils,  should  be  avoided. 

Probably  the  greatest  hygienic  sin  the  teacher  commits  against 
her  pupils,  is  oftentimes  in  the  matter  of  ventilation.  The  air  out 
of  doors  is  always  the  best  air  that  nature  has.  Scientists  are  not 
altogether  agreed,  as  yet,  as  to  all  the  facts  relating  to  the  causes  and 
effects  of  bad  air  in  the  school  room ;  but  there  is  absolutely  no 
doubt  that  the  air  on  the  outside  is  the  best  air  to  be  had,  and  should 
be  brought  into  the  room  as  freely  as  possible.  Every  teacher 
should  make  it-  a  practice,  occasionally,  to  step  out  in  the  fresh  air, 
so  that  when  she  returns,  she  may  detect  the  foul  odor  that  always 
accompanies  bad  air  in  the  school  room,  when  it  is  there. 

The  teacher  has  less  control,  possibly,  over  the  food  of  the  child, 
and  his  habits  of  eating,  than  she  has  over  many  other  of  the  things 
we  have  referred  to.  But  the  first  years  of  the  child 's  school  life,  is 
the  time,  above  all  others,  when  the  teacher  is  in  a  position  to  se- 
cure the  growth  of  some  proper  habits  in  this  respect.  In  the  cases 
where  the  child  and  teacher  both  bring  their  dinners,  the  teacher 
has  an  excellent  chance  to  teach  the  child  the  importance  of  eat- 
ing slowly  and  chewing  his  food  very  carefully.  A  great  deal  of 
tact  may  be  needed  as  regards  any  reference  to  the  kind  of  food  the 
child  gets  at  home ;  but  the  teacher  oftentimes  can  emphasize  the 


65 


value  of  the  simple,  wholesome  sorts  of  food,  especially  for  the 
child.  Any  teacher  is  doing  the  children  a  distinct  good,  when  she 
discourages  the  child  from  eating  much  candy,  especially  the  cheap 
and  highly  colored  kinds.  An  excessive  amount  even  of  pure  sugar 
is  always  bad  for  the  child ;  and  moreover,  cheap  candies  very  often 
contain  substances  that  are  actually  poisonous. 

Work  In  Fourth  Grade. 

In  the  set  that  is  adopted  for  the  schools  of  West  Virginia  the 
first  two  books,  the  Primer  of  Hygiene  and  the  Primer  of  Sani- 
tation, respectively,  are  issued  either  as  separate  volumes  or  are 
bound  together  in  one  volume.  In  either  case  it  is  suggested  that 
the  teacher  should  take  the  subject  matter  of  the  Primer  of  Hygiene 
for  two  years,  beginning  in  the  fourth  grade. 

The  pupil  need  not  be  required  to  purchase  the  text-book  but  the 
teacher  should  have  a  copy. 

Take  one  regular  lesson  per  week,  at  one  of  the  periods  assigned 
to  Nature  Study.    This  should  come  on  the  same  day  each  week. 

The  teacher  should  use  the  subject  matter  of  from  two 
to  four  pages  for  a  talk  or  oral  lesson.  For  instance  the  first 
lesson  should  cover  the  first  three  pages  of  the  Primer.  Where 
possible  and  practicable  the  matter  and  method  there  given  may  be 
supplemented  from  other  sources.  Pains  should  be  taken,  by 
appropriate  questions  and  otherwise,  to  let  the  pupils  participate 
in  the  lesson.  The  suggestions  in  fine  print,  following  this  and 
other  chapters,  should  be  heeded.  In  succeeding  lessons  each  les- 
son should  begin  with  carefully  prepared  questions  by  the  teacher 
relating  to  what  has  preceded,  either  the  immediately  preceding 
lesson  or  such  others  as  may  be  proper. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Chapter  four  of  the  Primary  book,  adopted  text,  in  the  first  half 
of  this  year,  and  chapter  five  in  the  second  semester,  should  consti- 
tute the  work  in  arthimetie. 

Notation  and  numeration  of  numbers  to  three  orders;  Roman 
numerals;  addition  and  substraction  of  whole  numbers;  multipli- 
cation with  one  figure  and  increasing  to  two  and  three  figures ;  di- 
vision the  same ;  teaching  of  eleven,  twelve  and  fifteen  tables ;  cubic 
measure  begun;  much  oral  work;  easy  fractions,  etc.,  all  as  pre- 
sented by  chapter  four  of  the  text. 


66 


In  the  second  semester  common  fractions,  decimal  fractions,  bills, 
and  much  work  in  general  review,  as  outlined  in  chapter  five  of  the 
text  is  to  be  given. 

LANGUAGE. 

General  Suggestions. 

To  the  teacher  the  problem  of  successful  language  work  has  three 
distinct  phases,  and  the  more  clearly  she  sees  and  understands  each 
of  these,  the  greater  will  be  her  ease  and  pleasure  in  the  work  while 
it  is  in  progress,  and  the  greater  will  be  the  profit  to  the  child,  from 
her  instruction.    These  three  phrases  are : 

(a)  .    The  Aim. 

(b)  .    The  Materials. 

(c)  .    The  Methods. 

No  teacher  will  gain  much  insight  into  the  problem  and  much 
skill  in  language  instruction  without  a  great  deal  of  study  and 
experience,  neither  of  which  alone  is  sufficient,  and  each  of  which 
is  most  profitable  while  accompanying  the  other.  The  teacher  is 
very  earnestly  urged,  therefore,  to  illuminate  and  enrich  her  exper- 
ence  by  thoughtful  reading  upon  the  subject,  and  to  do  as  much  of 
this  reading  as  possible  while  actually  engaged  in  the  teaching.  For 
this  reason,  the  names  of  various  books  discussing  language  teaching 
are  given  elsewhere,  with  the  hope  that  many  of  them  will  be  sooner 
or  later  read. 

The  Aim. 

To  his  friends  an  dintimate  companions  the  average  child  of 
school  age  can  express  with  fairly  adequate  clearness  and  force  his 
ideas  and  thoughts  relating  to  those  subjects  upon  which  he  has  clear 
and  distinct  ideas,  and  in  which  at  the  time  he  has  sufficient  interest. 
From  this  we  may  draw  some  conclusions  about  the  function  of 
language  work  in  the  school. 

Many  writers  state  that  is  it  one  end  of  language  instruction  to 
increase  the  range  of  ideas,  thoughts  and  interests  of  the  child; 
this,  it  seems  however,  is  not  the  aim  of  language  instruction  by  it- 
self. Such  a  growth  or  increase  is  naturally  the  effect  of  the  whole 
sc'hool  life  of  the  child,  as  well  as  of  his  life  outside  the  school. 

It  is  not  the  aim  of  language  work  to  increase  the  range  of  his 
mental  life  in  general,  but  the  aim  should  be  rather  closely  limited 
to  the  effort  to  keep  his  capacity  for  oral  and  written  expression 


67 


fairly  well  abreast  with  the  growth  and  expansion  that  is  constantly 
taking  place  in  his  mind  from  all  other  causes  and  sources.  This 
involves  quite  a  variety  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher ;  among 
others  we  find  the  following: 

1.  The  effort  to  teach  the  principles  relating  to  the  development, 
selection  and  arrangement  of  his  ideas  about  subjects  in  an  orderly 
manner  so  as  to  train  the  child  in  the  art  of  making  an  effective 
presentation  of  his  thoughts  relating  to  any  given  topic. 

2.  The  effort  to  stimulate  in  various  ways  his  growth  in  the 
.  knowledge  and  mastery  of  words,  and  to  keep  this  mastery  abreast 

with  his  constantly  expanding  ideas  and  feelings. 

3.  The  effort  to  direct  the  growth  of  his  habits  as  to  the  clear  and 
definite  use  of  words,  and  in  the  matter  of  selecting  appropriate 
words. 

4.  The  effort  to  direct  the  control  of  his  habits  in  the  selection 
and  combination  of  the  words  he  uses,  according  to  the  principles  of 
grammatical  order  and  agreement. 

5.  The  effort  to  teach  him  the  special  principles  relating  to  such 
mechanical  devices  as  capitalization,  punctuation,  paragraphing, 
etc.,  and  to  direct  his  habits  into  the  automatic  and  unconsious  use 
of  proper  forms. 

The  teacher,  then,  should  be  constantly  asking  himself  these  five 
questions: 

1.  How  can  I  teach  the  child  to  think  connectively  about  a  sub- 
ject and  to  select  and  arrange  his  ideas  orderly  and  effectively. 

2.  How  can  I  assist  in  the  growth  of  the  child's  command  of 
"words. 

3.  How  can  I  assist  the  child  in  the  matter  of  choosing  from  the 
words  he  knows  those  that  will  clearly,  exactly  and  fully  express 
what  he  wishes  to  say. 

4.  How  can  I  assist  the  child  to  put  his  words  together  according 
to  the  generally  accepted  order  and  forms,  that  is  to  say,  grammati- 
cally. 

5.  How  can  I  best  present  to  him,  and  train  him  in  the  right  use 
of,  the  capitals,  punctuation,  paragraphing  and  other  devices  that 
are  used  in  written  work. 

The  Materials. 

In  a  school  system  sufficiently  highly  organized  there  are  many 
reasons  for  believing  that  both  greater  economy  and  greater  effi- 
ciency would  result  from  having  the  material  for  language  work 


68 


more  largely  selected  from  the  other  studies  and  interests  of  the 
child  than  it  is  possible  to  do  at  present.  Since  it  is  not  possible  to 
gather  the  language  material  from  the  sources  mentioned,  it  is  most 
convenient  and  satisfactory  to  have  the  material  gathered  in  the 
language  book  itself.  Therefore,  the  teacher  usually  will  do  well 
to  take  the  material  for  the  language  lessons  from  the  text-book  as 
it  is  found  given  there.  The  material  given  in  the  present  adoptions 
is  of  quite  a  high  literary  and  artistic  value,  and  on  the  whole  is 
probably  as  good  as  such  a  collection  could  be. 

The  pedagogic  test  of  the  worth  of  language  lesson  material, 
so  far  as  its  effectiveness  is  concerned,  however,  lies  along  the  line 
of  its  native  interest  and  appeal  to  the  mind  of  the  child.  The 
things  that  ordinarly  have  this  interest  and  appeal  in  the  right  sort 
of  way  are  the  things  that  are  in  some  way  connected  with  other 
phases  of  his  life.  Therefore,  anything  relating  to  the  other  studies 
of  the  child,  to  his  play  and  games,  to  his  home  life  and  personal 
relationships  with  many  things,  will  oftentimes  make  a  peculiarly 
strong  appeal  to  him,  and  will  be  wonderfully  effective  as  subject 
matter  for  these  lessons. 

So  then  the  teacher  should  not  hesitate  to  take  the  subject  matter 
for  some  particular  recitation  from  other  sources  than  the  offering 
of  the  book,  in  cases  where  she  feels  that  she  can  thus  secure  a 
greater  interest  and  a  more  ready  response  on  the  hand  of  the  pupil. 
She  should,  however,  be  sure  of  its  usefulness,  as  compared  with 
what  the  text  book  offers,  and  she  should  work  up  her  preparation 
as  carefully,  as  that  given  by  the  text-book,  has  been  worked  out. 

The  Methods. 

To  go  very  thoroughly  into  the  matter  of  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing English  would  require  a  whole  book.  So  little  can  be  said  other 
than  that  the  plan  of  the  text-book  itself  is  presumed  to  be  the  work- 
ing out  of  a  practical  system  of  language  instruction,  which  is 
what  we  ordinarily  understand  it  to  be.  The  care,  the  work,  the  in- 
terest and  enthusiasm,  and  the  judgment,  that  the  teacher  puts  into 
the  instruction,  are  very  important  things  under  methods. 

But  above  and  beyond  these  things  there  are  one  or  two  points 
that  might  be  well  called  to  the  teacher's  attention.  The  first  of 
these  is  that  the  results  and  effects  of  the  pupil's  effort  are  very 
largely  determined  by  his  motive,  and  the  best  possible  motive  for 
the  effort  at  language  expression,  as  also  of  other  forms  of  expres- 


69 


sion,  is  the  perception  of  some  need  for  the  effort,  and  the  conse- 
quent desire  to  make  the  effort. 

A  child  will  come  home  from  a  picnic  and  tell  his  friends  very 
fully  and  effectively  about  the  events  of  the  day;  the  effect  of  his 
story,  or  What  he  conceives  will  be  the  effect,  on  his  hearers  in  var- 
ious ways,  makes  it  seem  to  him  a  desirable  thing  to  do.  We  do  not 
usually  think  of  it  as  being  so,  but  the  child,  who  is  relating  his 
experiences  thus,  is  in  reality  having  a  very  effective  language  ex- 
perience. This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  many  men  who  have  had 
varied  and  rich  experiences  in  life  and  are  accustomed  to  narrate 
them,  even  if  they  have  had  little  schooling,  are  more  gifted  in  the 
art  of  language  expression  than  others  who  have  spent  a  great  deal 
of  time  in  schools. 

Then,  if  we  can  interest  the  child  in  the  subject  matter  of  his 
language,  and  can  make  it  seem  a  desirable  thing  to  tell  or  write 
his  thoughts,  and  can  give  him  suggestions  and  instruction  about 
the  use  of  his  ideas,  and  the  use  of  the  words  with  which  he  expresses 
these,  we  are  getting  down  to  the  principles  of  effective  language 
teaching. 

Work  In  Fourth  Grade. 

The  Book  One,  should  be  completed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  years, 
the  fourth  grade  covering  parts  one  and  two.  The  teacher  should 
bear  in  mind  that  our  text-books  in  English,  for  the  grades,  usually 
called  language  books,  contain  in  many  lessons  various  sorts  of 
material.  Thus  some  lessons  contain  a  picture,  or  a  poem,  or  a 
story,  w^hich  is  the  basis  of  the  lesson.  In  addition  to  this,  they  have 
questions  or  explanations  to  the  child  for  his  direction  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  lesson;  and,  furthermore,  they  may  contain  explana- 
tions or  suggestions  to  the  teachers  regarding  the  conduct  of  the  les- 
son. Therefore,  in  the  matter  of  the  assignment  of  any  particular 
lesson,  the  teacher  should  always  think  over  carefully  the  matter 
that  she  finds  given  in  the  book,  under  that  lesson,  and  in  her  own 
mind  should  distinguish  carefully  the  nature  and  purpose  of  every- 
thing given,  and  decide  before  the  assignment  of  the  lesson,  what 
use  is  to  be  made  of  each  part. 

A  definite  amount  of  time  should  be  taken  for  the  explanation  of 
the  lesson  to  the  child  before  he  begins  his  preparation  for  the  reci- 
tation. The  teacher  should  never  merely  say  that  the  class  should 
take  the  next  page,  or  the  next  section,  or  the  next  lesson ;  but  she 
should  have  the  children  open  their  books  to  the  desired  place,  and 


70 


should  tell  the  child  definitely  what  he  is  to  do.  If  it  were  practica- 
ble, it  seems  that  it  would  be  much  better  if  the  teacher's  book  were 
printed  separately  from  that  given  the  child,  so  that  the  distinction 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  material  in  certain  lessons  could 
be  more  fully  preserved.  But  since  this  is  not  possible,  it  falls  upon 
the  teacher  to  see  that  these  distinctions  are  properly  observed. 

We  will  illustrate  what  is  meant  above  by  discussing  some  of  the 
lessons  that  are  given  in  the  text-book.  Take  lesson  one  for  instance. 
If  the  teacher  happens  to  have  a  large  copy  of  the  picture  that  is 
given,  or  had  any  small  copies  to  put  in  the  hands  of  the  class,  it 
would  be  better  to  give  this  lesson  without  having  a  text-book  in 
the  class.  First,  call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  picture.  After 
interest  has  been  secured,  let  each  child  name  something  that  he  sees 
in  the  picture,  and  finally,  ask  some  child  to  tell  what  the  picture 
evidently  is  designed  to  represent,  the  children  themselves  suggest- 
ing names  for  the  picture.  In  case  they  do  not  themselves  get  the 
right  one,  by  proper  questions  they  may  be  led  to  do  it.  In  all  of 
this  work,  it  is  evident  that,  in  many  instances,  questions  or  the  line 
of  questioning  would  not  be  the  same  as  that  given  in  the  book ;  and 
that  in  many  recitations,  the  questions  would  not  arise  in  precisely 
the  same  order.  But  the  point  to  be  emphasized  here  is  that  the 
lesson  is  essentially  an  oral  lesson,  and  that  it  should  never  be  as- 
signed by  merely  telling  the  pupil  to  get  the  first  lesson  in  the  book. 

Similarly,  in  several  of  the  succeeding  lessons  the  questions  given, 
or  other  ones,  should  be  asked  by  the  teacher  orally,  rather  than 
have  the  child  read  the  questions  from  the  book.  After  this  is 
done,  the  class  should  be  asked  to  tell  the  meaning  required,  to  give 
the  story  or  to  copy  the  verses,  or  to  do  whatever  else  that  the  book 
suggests  at  that  particular  place.  In  lesson  five  for  example,  if  you 
tell  the  child  to  take  lesson  five,  as  found  in  the  book,  there  are  very 
few  children  who  will  take  the  book  and  read  the  lesson  over  and 
do  what  is  suggested  to  be  done.  For  instance,  very  few  children 
will  take  notice  or  think  about  a  black  cat,  and  then  actually  try  to 
form  mental  images  about  the  black  cat,  especially  where  a  list  of 
objects  is  named  together.  Evidently  the  teacher  should  take  the 
objects  referred  to,  one  at  a  time  and  ask  the  children  to  think  about 
them ;  and  ordinarily  the  only  circumstances  under  which  the  child 
will  think  about  these  objects,  is  when  he  expects  to  be  given  a 
chance  to  say  something  about  them.  Therefore  the  teacher  perhaps 
should  say,  "I  want  each  one  in  the  class  to  think  about  the  black 
cat,  and  tell  me  what  he  thinks  about  it,"  and  thus  on  with  the 


71 


other  objects.  Then  at  the  proper  time,  she  can  call  the  attention 
of  the  class  to  the  fact  that  when  they  have  put  a  thought  into  a 
statement,  the  statement  is  called  a  sentence.  Finally,  as  a  written 
exercise,  she  may  require  the  child  to  make  sentences  about  five  of 
the  things  named. 

In  such  a  lesson  as  No.  85,  on  page  72,  most  classes  will  possibly 
make  a  failure  of  the  lesson  if  merely  told  to  take  lesson  85.  How- 
ever, let  us  suppose  that  the  teacher  either  tells  the  story  herself 
orally,  or  that  when  the  class  is  called  she  says :  ' '  I  want  each  one, 
silently,  to  read  the  story  about  Gellert."  Then,  by  the  use  of  the 
questions  given  in  the  book  and  other  appropriate  questions,  she 
leads  the  child  to  see  that  at  least  three  distinct  things  or  incidents 
are  told  in  the  story.  It  would  be  well,  next,  to  get  each  child  to 
see  what  facts  or  statements  make  up  each  incident.  After  this  is 
done,  it  is  time  then  to  have  the  child,  for  his  seat  work  in  prepa- 
ration for  his  lesson,  actually  write  the  story,  having  him  under- 
stand that  each  incident  is  to  make  one  paragraph.  The  preliminary 
oral  part  of  the  lesson  might  be  gone  through  with  one  day,  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  previous  lesson  and  during  the  last  part  of  the  re- 
citation period ;  or  it  might  be  taken  during  the  day  in  which  the  les- 
son has  its  own  recitation.  But  the  important  principle  should  be  ob- 
served that  the  preliminary  and  introductory  part  should  be  done 
with  the  class  working  with  the  teacher,  and  under  his  or  her  direc- 
tion, and  never  by  merely  working  independently  with  no  further 
instruction  than  that  they  should  take  lesson  No.  85. 

Of  course,  many  trained  and  experience  teachers  will  apply  the 
methods  suggested,  or  equally  good  ones  of  their  own  devising,  but 
to  the  inexperienced  and  untrained  teacher,  the  few  examples  given 
should  be  sufficient  to  get  the  principles  that  will  throw  light  on  the 
successful  use  of  the  book. 

OEOGRAPHT. 

General  Suggestions. 

The  course  in  geography,  as  here  outlined,  is  limited  to  the 
fourth,  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  grades.  If  the  geography  is  proper- 
ly taught  in  these  grades,  the  fundamentals  can  be  intellingently 
acquired  within  this  time.  In  the  eighth  year  the  geography  is  to 
be  used  as  a  reference  book  only,  unless  the  teacher  has  the  time  for 
a  supplementary  commercial  course  in  geography. 

The  aim  of  this  outline  is  to  meet  the  needs  and  difficulties  of  the 


72 


average  teacher  using  the  average  text. 

The  study  of  geography  proper  with  daily  recitations  is  to  begin 
in  the  fourth  grade,  where  one  whole  year  should  be  devoted  to  out- 
of-door  and  home  geography. 

No  book  is  to  be  used.  The  knowledge  in  this  grade  is  to  be  from 
actual  observations  in  the  region  of  the  home. 

With  a  two-book  series,  it  is  planned  that  book  one  will  be  taken 
up  in  the  fifth  grade,  when  globe  study  in  the  outline  is  begun.  The 
use  of  the  text  book  will  sometimes  precede  and  sometimes  follow 
the  class  work  on  a  given  topic,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the 
teacher.  This  text  should  be  completed  in  the  fifth  year,  or,  at 
most,  by  the  middle  of  the  sixth  year.  This  is  followed  by  the  ad- 
vanced text,  which  is  completed  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year. 
With  the  advanced  text  the  work  is  to  be  more  intensive  in  char- 
acter, and  the  study  of  the  subject  matter  is  made  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  cause  and  effect. 

Work  in  Fourth  Grade. 
1.    Introductory  lessons : 

a.  Mapping  of  school  room,  school  grounds  and  immediate  vicin- 
ity. 

b.  Study  of  land  and  water  forms  of  the  district,  with  the  pur- 
pose of  forming,  if  possible,  good,  clear,  mental  pictures  of  (1) 
valley,  (2)  slope,  (3)  divide,  (4)  hill,  (5)  plain,  (6)  alluvial  fan, 
(7)  delta,  (8)  flood  plain,  (9)  pond  or  lake,  (10)  stream,  (11) 
marsh  or  swamp,  etc. 

c.  Observation  work  on  changing  seasons  and  weather  as.  winter 
begins-  Bring  out  how  the  change  in  the  direction  of  wind  causes 
changes  in  temperature,  precipitation  and  state  of  sky. 

d.  Attention  to  the  winter  occupations  of  the  farmer  and  others 
in  the  community,  especially  to  the  commercial  side  of  the  farmer's 
life,  such  as  hauling  wood  and  produce  to  town.  This  will  lead  to  a 
comparison  of  town  and  country  life  and  the  study  of  the  town  as 
s.  commercial  and  manufacturing  center. 

e.  Comparative  home  geography. 

By  comparison  and  contrast  make  a  study  of  life  and  environ- 
ment in  other  lands.   The  following  is  suggested : 

(1)  Life  in  arctic  lands — Greenland. 

(2)  Life  in  tropical  forests — Amazon  Valley. 

(3)  Life  along  sea  coasts — Norway. 


73 


(4)  Life  in  mountains — Switzerland. 

(5)  Life  on  deserts — Sahara. 

(c)  Life  on  grass  lands — Australia,  Argentine  or  the  steppes 
of  Russia. 

(7)    Life  in  the  Orient — China  or  Japan. 

Make  a  collection  of  pictures  to  illustrate  this  work.  See  sug- 
gestions for  purposes  of  the  work  and  references. 

f.  Observation  work  on  seasons  and  weather,  as  before,  as  spring 
opens- 

g.  Summarize  the  results  of  this  year's  study  of  seasons  to  bring 
out  why  summer  is  warmer  than  winter,  and  why  we  have  change 
of  seasons. 

h.  Have  pupils  make  local  maps,  putting  in  drainage  features, 
relief  forms,  roads,  buildings,  district  boundary  lines,  fields,  etc. 

i.  Observations  on  the  spring  work  and  occupations  of  the  farm- 
er. While  the  fields  are  being  plowed  is  the  best  opportunity  to 
study  soils  and  their  relation  to  the  crops  grown. 

Purpose:  To  furnish  the  child  through  observation  and  ex- 
perience with  such  fundamental  ideas  as  will  help  him  to  form  cor- 
rect notions  of  the  countries  or  regions  which  he  has  not  seen. 

Method:  The  work  in  class  should  be  based  upon  and  grow 
out  of  observations,  field  trips  and  first  hand  study  of  the  various 
features  and  phenomena  of  the  home  environment.  No  formal 
definitions  should  be  taught. 

Seasons. 

a.  Introduction:  Have  lessons  which  appeal  to  the  child's  ex- 
perience, and  which  make  cle:tr  to  him  how  change  of  seasons  in- 
fluence his  games,  the  occupations  of  his  people,  the  plant  and 
animal  life  about  him.  These  lessons  should  provide  for  clear  and 
vivid  ideas,  and  emphasize  that  which  is  essential  in  modern  geo- 
graphy viz :  the  relations  o^'  life  to  its  environment. 

b.  Observations:  Beginning  in  September  with  the  autumnal 
equinox,  a  series  of  weekly  or  monthly  observations  should  be  started 
and  carried  on  through  the  year  with  the  purpose  of  determining : 

(1)  Time  of  sunrise  and  sunset,  with  varying  lengths  of  day 
and  night- 

(2)  Direction  in  which  the  sun  rises,  its  path  through  the  sky 
and  direction  in  which  it  sets. 

(3)  Noon  altitude  of  the  sun,  or  angle  of  the  sun's  rays  as 


74 


shown  by  the  length  of  shadow  cast  by  a  vertical  post. 

A  record  should  be  kept  of  these  observations.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  to  make  accurate  observations  on  the  vernal  and 
autumnal  equinoxes  (Mai-ch  21st  and  September  22nd),  and  the 
winter  and  summer  solstices  (December  21st  and  June  22nd). 

While  making  these  observations,  the  directions,  north,  south, 
east  and  west,  should  be  taught.  The  expressions  '^up"  for  north 
and  ''down"  for  south,  should  never  be  used.  As  the  observations 
proceed,  the  pupil  will  see  that  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in 
the  west  only  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes.  He  should  learn  to 
think  of  north  as  the  direction  in  which  the  shadow  of  a  vertical 
post  falls  at  noon. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year  these  observations  should  be  sum- 
marized and  a  conclusion  reached  as  to  the  cause  of  the  change 
of  seasons.  The  pupil  should  be  able  to  see  that  summer  is  warmer 
than  winter  because  the  days  are  longer,  the  nights  shorter,  and 
the  sun's  rays  nearer  vertical,  and  that  change  of  season  is  due  to 
the  changing  length  of  day  and  night  and  the  changing  angle  of  the 
sun's  rays.  The  vertical  rays  heat  more  than  slanting  rays  will 
usually  be  demonstrated  by  a  single  day's  observation  of  the  dif- 
ference in  temperature  betwen  sunrise  and  noon.  The  above  ex- 
planation of  seasons  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  made  in  the  child's 
experience  and  the  only  one  that  should  be  attempted  in  this  grade. 
The  shape  and  motions  of  the  earth  should  not  be  mentioned  in  this 
grade  in  connection  with  the  season,  and  the  explanations  which  in- 
volves this  use  should  be  postponed  until  the  advanced  text  is 
introduced. 

Weather  Observations. 

Parallel  with  the  above  observations,  a  simple  record  of  weather 
observations  should  be  kept.  This  should  include  the  state  of  the 
sky,  temperature,  precipitation,  direction  of  wind,  etc.,  for  each 
day  in  the  school  year. 

The  following  table  is  suggestive  : 
Date.       Sky.  Temperature.    Precipitation.  Wind  Eemarks 
Sept.  20  Clear    Warm  75°       None.  S.  E. 

Sept.  21  Cloudy  Cooler  60°      Rain  S.  to  S.  W. 

Sept.  22  Fair     Cold  40°         Light  Frost        N.  W. 

Under  remaks,  a  record  of  many  interesting  phenomena  may  be 
kept,  such  as  first  snow,  first  robin,  wild  geese  flying  north,  first 
violet,  etc.   The  keeping  of  such  a  record  will  stimulate  the  closest 


75 


and  most  varied  observations,  each  pupil  being  anxious  to  outdo 
the  others. 

Aim  to  associate  wind  directions  with  state  of  the  sky,  tempera- 
ture, precipitation,  and  to  determine  what  winds  give  us  the  clear- 
est skies  and  coolest  weather ;  or  warmer  temperature,  cloudy  skies 
and  rain,  or  our  heavy  snow  storms.  The  explanation  of  all  this 
will  come  in  the  later  grades. 

Forms  of  Land  and  Water. 

The  aim  of  the  observations  should  be  to  give  the  child  good, 
clear,  mental  pictures  of  such  relief  and  water  forms  as  valley, 
gulley,  gorge  or  canyon,  flood-plain,  alluvial  fan,  slope,  hill,  divide, 
brook  and  river,  rapids  and  falls,  lake  and  swamp,  together  with 
some  notion  of  the  action  of  streams  in  producing  many  of  the 
above  relief  forms. 

These  are  to  be  studied  through  field  trips  and  excursions.  It  is 
left  to  the  teacher's  ingenuity  to  find  time  and  place  for  these  ex- 
cursions but  it  is  urged  that  she  manage  in  some  way,  at  noon,  at 
recess  or  after  school,  to  take  many  of  these  trips.  She  should  first 
go  over  the  ground  and  carefully  plan  out  each  trip  in  advance. 
Her  walks  through  the  fields  should  have  a  purpose  in  them.  Visit 
some  creek  or  brook,  and  note  from  time  to  time  how  mud,  sand  and 
gravel  are  being  carried  or  rolled  along  its  bottom ;  how  this  load  of 
waste  and  the  volume  of  the  stream  vary  before  and  after  rains; 
how  the  streams  are  cutting  on  the  outside  and  depositing  on  the  in- 
side of  every  curve;  how  some  valleys  are  narrow  at  the  bottom  or 
V-shaped,  while  others  have  flood-plains  on  either  side.  On  the 
steeper  slopes  along  these  valleys,  or  of  some  neighboring  hill,  the 
temporary  torrents  or  streams,  which  gather  after  a  heavy  rain, 
may  have  cut  these  slopes  with  gullies  and  at  the  lower  end  of  these 
gullies  have  spread  out  their  load  of  sand  and  gravel  into  fan- 
shaped  deposits,  known  as  alluvial  fans  or  cones.  A  delta  formed 
from  some  mud-laden  streamlet  will  usually  illustrate  all  those  char- 
acteristics and  features  of  such  larger  deltas  as  those  of  the  Missis- 
sippi or  the  Nile.  These  observations  can  be  grasped  as  a  whole  by 
the  child 's  mind  and  concepts  can  be  formed  which  can  later  be  en- 
larged to  include  those  more  distant  ones. 

This  out-of-door  geography  should  not  be  confined  to  the  fourth 
grade.    Whenever  the  home  region  furnishes  anything  which  will 


76 


aid  in  making  real  to  the  pupils  some  unseen  region,  then  that  par- 
ticular thing  should  be  the  introduction  to  the  distant  region. 

Do  not  attempt  too  much  on  field  excursions-  Each  excursion 
will  furnish  sufficient  material  for  several  subsequent  class  dis- 
cussions. Without  these  class  discussions  the  excursions  themselves 
are  of  little  value. 

Agriculture. 

The  aim  of  the  work  should  be  to  develop  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
good,  clear  concepts  of  the  various  industries  of  his  community, 
which  shall  in  later  grades  be  the  basis  for  comparing  and  con- 
trasting the  industries  of  other  regions. 

In  the  fall  make  a  study  of  the  various  crops  raised  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, the  soil  upon  which  they  grow,  the  manner  of  harvesting 
these  crops,  and  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put.  In  the  spring 
study  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  planting  and  tilling  of  various 
crops.  Note  what  crops  are  raised  on  sandy  soils,  loams,  heavy 
clay  soils,  muck  or  marshy  land,  and  the  relation  of  quantities  pro- 
duced to  the  soil.  A  careful  study  of  the  soils  of  the  neighboring 
fields  should  be  made.  This  study  leads  naturally  to  the  origin  of 
soil  and  how  rocks  are  broken  up  by  frost  action,  rain,  changes  of 
temperature,  etc.  Notice  the  layers  of  soil  and  subsoil  in  excava- 
tions, railway  cuts  and  other  places.  Have  the  children  account  for 
the  differences.  In  connection  with  agriculture,  study  also  the  spe- 
cialized phases  of  the  industry,  such  as  fruit  growing,  market  gar- 
dening, stock  raising  and  dairying. 

Commerce. 

The  study  of  agriculture  leads  naturally  into  that  of  commerce- 
After  the  farmer  has  gathered  his  crops  and  put  aside  from  pro- 
ducts of  his  farm  a  sufficient  amount  to  supply  the  needs  of  his 
family,  his  stock  and  his  seed  for  next  year,  and  has  still  a  surplus 
or  grain,  potatoes,  apples  and  other  products,  he  naturally  seeks  a 
buyer  among  people  who  are  engaged  in  different  occupations,  and 
who,  for  that  reason,  have  needs  and  wants  different  from  his.  This 
leads  him  to  haul  his  products  to  the  town  or  city  where  he  ex- 
changes them  for  money  or  articles  which  he  needs.  This  is  com- 
merce and  grows  out  of  diversity  of  needs,  which  in  turn  grows 
largely  out  of  diversity  of  occupation.  These  principles  are  funda- 
mental and  may  be  grasped  and  understood  by  the  fourth  grade 


77 


pupil  if  studied  as  they  apply  to  his  own  home  life  and  neighbor- 
hood. This  makes  commerce  a  real  thing  to  him.  He  can  realize 
in  part  that  because  his  father  hauls  his  grain  or  fruit  to  town,  the 
commerce  of  freight  trains  and  steamboats  is  in  part  made  pos- 
sible. 

The  farm  wagon  has  a  new  interest  since  it  is  one  of  the  means  of 
the  world's  commerce.  Eoads  and  bridges  are  also  means  of  com- 
merce, hence  the  importance  of  good  roads.  This  work  leads  natur- 
ally to  the  study  of  the  neighboring  town  as  a  commercial  center. 
Let  the  children  report  on  what  they  have  seen  in  town  that  is  dif- 
ferent from  the  country,  viz:  the  houses  being  close  together, 
streets  and  sidewalks,  the  stores,  necessity  for  fire  protection,  the 
railroad  by  which  the  town  sends  its  surplus  to  other  towns  dud 
received  in  exchange  articles  which  it  and  the  surrounding  country 
need.  Contrast  life  in  the  town  with  life  in  the  country,  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  each. 

Let  the  children  make  lists  of  articles  exported  from  and  im- 
ported to  their  fathers'  farms  and  from  these  lists  get  an  idea  of  the 
exports  and  imports  of  their  community. 

Tell  them  stories  about  some  of  the  distant  regions  of  the  earth 
that  supply  them  with  necessities,  such  as  coffee  from  Brazil,  tea 
from  China  and  Japan,  rubber  from  the  Amazon  valley. 

Manufacturing. 

Whenever  the  district  offers  opportunity  for  the  observation 
study  of  manufacturing,  the  teacher  should  give,  through  observa- 
tion, a  foundation  notion  of  this  branch  of  industry.  The  grist- 
mill, saw-mill,  creamery  and  foundry  are  typical  in  that  the  manu- 
facturing plant  is  stationary  and  the  raw  material  must  be  trans- 
ported to  the  power  or  the  factory- 

These  observations  should  lead  the  pupil  to  see  that  the  following 
conditions  are  necessary  for  manufacturing  as  carried  on  today: 

(a)  Power,  and  if  possible,  the  various  means  of  obtaining  it, 
such  as  water  power,  steam,  gasoline  and  electricity. 

(b)  Raw  material. 

(c)  Food  supply  for  employees. 

(d)  Labor. 

(e)  Commercial  facilities,  wagons,  freight  cars  or  vessels  which 
bring  raw  material  to  the  factory  and  take  away  the  manufactured 
products. 

Encourage  the  children  to  observe  and  report  all  the  various 


78 


forms  of  manufacturing  carried  on  in  the  community.  Have  the 
pupils  prepare  lists  of  raw  materials  and  of  manufacturesd  articles 
exported  from,  or  imported  into,  the  neighborhood.  Have  pupils 
find  out  the  kind  of  plows,  buggies,  binders,  sewing  machines,  and 
other  articles  of  farm  and  household  use,  and  where  they  are  made- 
'  In  this  way  the  connection  may  be  made  between  the  home  section 
and  distant  section. 

Comparative  Home  Geography. 

The  pupils  have  found  in  the  study  of  the  commerce  of  their  home 
region  that  is  is  (dependent  upon,  and  contributes  to,  many  other 
regions  in  furnishing  man  with  food,  clothing  and  shelter. 

It  is  because  of  this  mutual  dependence  that  these  distant  regions 
should  be  known.  This  dependence  and  relationship  furnishes 
the  way  of  approach  to  the  study  of  other  regions. 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  study  of  the  globe  will  be  taken  up  and 
many  facts  will  be  learned  of  the  earth  as  a  whole.  Pupils  will 
learn  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  divided  into  continents  and 
oceans,  and  see  them  represented  on  the  globe  by  means  of  symbols. 
If  it  is  necessary  for  the  pupil  to  know  by  experience  real  rivers, 
hills  and  plains  before  he  sees  them  represented  by  symbols  on  a 
map,  it  is  equally  necessary  that  the  child  have  some  ideas  concern- 
ing a  continent  or  country  and  the  people  who  live  there,  before  he 
sees  on  a  globe  or  map  the  symbol  representing  that  continent  or 
country.  For  example,  his  first  contact  with  South  America  should 
not  be  through  its  symbols ;  he  should  have  ideas  and  mental  pictures 
of  parts  of  the  region  which  the  symbol  may  call  up.  Since  the 
basis  he  has  for  comprehending  distant  regions  is  through  experi- 
ence gained  in  his  own  home  region,  he  can  best  understand  the 
distant  by  comparing  and  contrasting  it  with  the  near. 

It  is  therefore  suggested  that  from  time  to  time  simple  descrip- 
tions and  stories  he  read  or  told  the  children  and  that  pictures  be 
shown  them  of  the  life  in  other  lands.  The  regions  selected  may  be 
either  those  which  send  to  us  or  receive  from  us  some  useful  and 
necessary  article  as  suggested  above,  or  those  regions  which  differ 
from  our  home  region  more  markedly,  such  as  Greenland  or  Lap- 
land, the  Sahara  Desert  or  a  level  region  like  the  Pampas. 

Maps  and  Mapping. 

The  ability  to  read  and  use  a  map  is  of  permanent  value  to 
the  pupil.    A  map  is  not  a  picture.    The  features  presented  on  a 


79 


map  are  represented  by  means  of  symbols  which  often  have  no 
resemblance  to  the  features  themselves.  The  map  work  in  this 
grade  should  make  the  child  familiar. 

(1)  .    With  the  things  and  geographical  features  themselves. 

(2)  .  With  the  use  of  symbols  by  which  these  features  are  repre- 
sented upon  maps.  The  pupil  should  not  be  required  to  use  a  sym- 
bol in  mapping  until  he  has  become  familiar  through  observation, 
experience  or  pictures,  with  the  thing  symbolized. 

The  first  maps  made  by  the  child  should  be  of  things  and  places 
so  familiar  with  the  child  that  neither  time  nor  attention  need  be 
spent  upon  the  things  themselves  but  upon  the  idea  of  representing 
them  by  symbols.  A  map  or  plan  of  the  school  room  and  school 
yard  should  be  drawn  first.  From  the  first  let  the  maps  be  drawn 
to  a  scale, — a  half  or  quarter  of  an  inch  on  the  paper  representing 
a  foot,  yard,  or  rod  on  the  region  mapped.  As  the  observation  work 
is  extended  so  as  to  include  streams,  valleys,  hills,  alluvial  fans,  etc., 
the  mapping  of  these  various  features  should  be  extended  until  the 
child  is  familiar  not  only  with  the  region  and  its  map,  but  with  the 
general  idea  of  mapping.  The  idea  of  direction  should  be  intro- 
duced early.  Maps  drawn  in  this  grade  should  always  contain  some 
symbol  to  indicate  directions,  such  as  an  arrow  which  points  north, 
or  some  other  symbol.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  pupils  make  maps 
with  north  at  the  top,  but  it  is  necessary  that  north  be  indicated  by 
some  symbol,  so  that  the  pupil  may  early  acquire  the  habit  of  look- 
ing for  the  direction  symbols  on  every  map. 

References  for  Comparative  Home  Geography. 

1.  Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands. — Shaw.  Amer- 
ican Book  Co.    30  cents. 

2.  Children  of  the  Cold.— Schwatka.    Ed.  Pub.  Co.    50  cents. 

3.  Children  of  the  Palm  Land. — Allen.    Ed.  Pub  Co.    50  cents. 

4.  Each  and  All. — Andrews.    Ginn  &  Co.    50  cents. 

5.  Northern  Europe.    Ginn  &  Co.    30  cents. 

6.  Seven  Little  Sisters. — Andrews.    Ginn  &  Co.    50  cents. 

7.  Strange  Lands  Near  Home.    Ginn  &  Co.    30  cents. 

8.  The  Wide  World.    Ginn  &  Co.    30  cents. 

9.  Toward  the  Rising  Sun.    Ginn  &  Co.    30  cents. 

10.  Under  Sunny  Skies.    Ginn  &  Co.    30  cents. 

11.  The  Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands. — Chaplin  Lathrop  Pub. 
Co.    60  cents. 


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12.  Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography. — McMurray- 
Macmillan.    50  cents. 

13.  How  We  Are  Clothed. — Chamberlain.    Macmillan.    40  cts. 

14.  How  We  Are  Fed. — Chamberlain.    Macmillan.    40  cents. 

15.  Around  the  World,  Geographical  Readers,  3  Vol.  Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co. 

16.  The  Snow  Baby.— Peary.    F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co.  $1.20. 

17.  Home  Life  in  all  Lands. — Morris.    Lippincott  $1.50. 

18.  Fairbank's  Home  Geography.    Ed.  Pub.  Co.  $1.00. 

19.  How  We  Are  Sheltered.    Macmillan  Co.    45  cents. 

SPELLING. 

Any  one  who  has  had  the  opportunity  to  observe  the  spelling 
ability  of  the  average  pupil  who  enters  high  school  knows  that  more 
careful  teaching  needs  to  be  done  in  the  grades  in  the  subject  of 
spelling.  It  is  quite  probable  that  enough  time  has  been  spent  up- 
on the  subject,  but  it  is  clear  that  the  results  have  not  been  satis- 
factory. Investigatings  show  that  the  results  attained  do  not  justi- 
fy the  amount  of  time  that  is  now  being  spent  upon  spelling.  When 
the  old  fashioned  spelling  bee  was  in  vogue  pupils  could  stand  up 
and  spell  but  they  seemed  to  lack  the  power  to  spell  correctly  on 
paper.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  thought  that  written  spelling  alone 
does  not  accomplish  all  that  is  desired.  The  following  suggestions 
may  prove  helpful : 

1.  Alternate  the  written  and  oral  lesson. 

2.  Have  a  definite  period  for  spelling,  and  conduct  the  lesson 
regularly. 

3.  Make  the  exercises  as  practical  as  possible.  DriU  upon  lists 
of  words  from  other  subjects. 

4.  Teach  pupils  how  to  study  their  spelling  lessons;  have  them 
observe  the  form  closely ;  limit  the  study  period  so  that  they  will  not 
waste  time  in  mastering  a  few  new  words ;  do  not  waste  time  upon 
the  easy  words ;  drill  upon  those  commonly  misspelled. 

5.  Have  spelling  matches  and  be  sure  that  the  words  pronounced 
are  practical.    Arrange  for  a  match  with  the  neighboring  school. 

6.  Teach  the  diacritical  marks  as  a  means  to  correct  pronunci- 
ation and  not  as  a  means  to  themselves. 

7.  The  final  test  is  written  work  in  other  subjects. 

Spelling  has  already  been  provided  for  in  this  course  of  study  in 
the  first,  second  and  third  years  in  connection  with  the  subject  of 
reading. 


81 


Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades. 

The  text  book  may  now  be  introduced,  and  used  until  the  end  of 
the  seventh  year.  Only  a  certain  amount  of  the  text  should  be 
gone  over  during  the  fourth  year;  pupils  should  understand  that 
they  are  to  master  all  practical  words  in  this  section  of  the  book. 
In  addition  to  the  text  it  would  be  well  to  study  antonyms  and 
synonyms,  homophones,  two  or  three  simple  rules  for  spelling  and 
call  attention  to  the  grammatical  forms  of  words.  Dictation  exer- 
cises should  also  be  used. 

In  the  fifth  year  a  certain  other  section  of  the  text  should  be 
mastered.  The  work  of  the  fourth  year  should  be  continued  with 
a  study  of  word  building  with  prefixes  and  suffixes;  study  related 
words  and  diacritical  marks.  Definition  of  words  should  be  in  con- 
nection with  other  subjects. 

WEITING. 

See  suggestions  in  first  grade. 

FIFTH  YEAR. 

READING  AND  LITERATURE. 

This  year  will  finish  reading  so  far  as  distinct  reading  classes  are 
concerned.  The  opportunities  to  teach  reading,  however,  are  even 
better  in  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  years  when  reading  is  pri- 
marily to  get  ideas  and  meaning.  During  this  year  the  fifth  reader 
and,  at  least,  an  equivalent  in  amount  of  literature  should  be  read 
by  each  pupil. 

As  pointed  out  above  reading  may  be  thought  of  as  the  assign- 
ing of  values  to  words,  phrases,  sentences,  etc.,  to  bring  out  mean- 
ing. In  some  selections  it  is  simple  enough  to  assign  the  values  to 
words;  the  selection  is  easy,  suited  only  for  extensive  reading;  the 
pupil  can  find  his  way  without  difficulty  and  there  is  little  oppor- 
tunity for  teaching.  In  other  sections  it  is  more  difficult  to  assign 
the  values  to  the  words,  to  get  the  correct  idea.  These  are  the  selec- 
tions that  afford  opportunity  to  teach  reading,  the  opportunity  for 
intensive  study.  A  number  of  lessons  may  be  taken  on  the  same 
selection,  class  study  lessons,  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  read  it 
aloud.  This  kind  of  intensive  reading  requires  much  class  think- 
ing. Here  is  the  teacher's  opportunity.  Many  selections  in  readers 
need  not  be  read  in  class  at  all;  they  are  suited  for  seat  work  and 


82 

home  reading.  In  this  way  time  is  given  for  close  study  of  the 
more  difficult  selections. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  manage  their  eyes  effectively .  in 
reading.  The  eye  movement  in  looking  ahead  to  catch  the  meaning 
and  to  be  prepared  for  the  words  and  phrases  is  very  important. 

Lesson  Plan. 

Selections — The  King  ot  the  Golden  River, — John  Ruskin 
Synopsis  of  Story: 

1.  The  appearance  of  Treasure  Valley,  the  character  of  its 
owners  and  the  waly  in  which  they  lost  their  inheritance. 

2.  The  life  and  occupation  of  the  brothers  after  they  left  Treas- 
ure Valley  and  the  discovery  of  a  way  to  regain  it. 

3.  How  Hans  followed  the  directions  given  and  what  became  of 
him. 

4.  The  attempt  made  by  Schwartz  and  his  fate. 

5.  The  trial  of  Grluck  and  the  reason  for  his  success. 

This  story  is  to  teach  how  "an  inheritance  which  had  been  lost 
by  cruelty  was  regained  by  love." 

The  following  suggestions  illustrate  the  way  in  which  the  work 
is  to  be  done : 

To  assist  the  pupil's  study,  assign  definite  parts  of  the  story  to  be 
read  silently.  Direct  pupils  to  make  a  list  of  the  words  they  do 
not  understand  and  find  meanings  for  as  many  as. they  can  in  the 
dictionary.  Compare  these  lists  in  class,  helping  the  children  to 
any  meanings  they  have  not  been  able  to  find.  Let  pupils  substi- 
tute some  of  the  new  words  found  in  place  of  those  used  in  the  text 
and  compare  and  discuss  results,  trying  to  find  a  reason  for  the 
author's  choice  of  words. 

To  insure  correct  pronunciation  of  difficult  words  lead  the  chil- 
dren to  use  as  many  of  them  as  possible  in  discussing  their  own  ex- 
periences, describing  persons  and  places  and  in  answering  questions 
similar  to  the  following : — ^What  two  words  in  the  first  sentence 
help  us  to  picture  the  part  of  Stiria  we  are  to  read  about?  What 
two  words  tell  about  the  fertility  of  the  Valley?  What  did  the 
descending  torrents  form,  etc.,  etc.  ? 

To  help  the  pupils  to  form  clear  pictures  of  what  has  been  read 
silently,  ask  them  to  describe  in  their  own  words  places,  persons  or 
objects  such  as  Treasure  Valley,  the  appearance  and  character  of 
each  of  the  three  brothers,  the  visitor  who  asked  Gluck  for  shelter, 
Gluck's  golden  mug,  etc. 


83 


To  get  individual  expression  from  the  children  and  save  time  in 
class,  ask  them  to  tell  in  writing  about  such  things  as  how  Hans  and 
Schwartz  treated  animals,  how  they  treated  their  servants  and 
Gluck,  how  they  became  so  rich ;  also  to  tell  all  the  reasons  they  can 
for  calling  Hans  and  Schwartz  the  Black  Brothers,  for  their  failure 
to  recover  Treasure  Valley,  for  the  success  of  Gluck  ,etc. 

As  a  means  of  helping  all  the  pupils  to  recall  the  details  and  to 
insure  the  viewing  of  them  in  their  proper  relations,  some  of  the 
more  involved  descriptions  will  be  read  aloud.  Most  of  the  con- 
versations will  be  read  in  the  same  way,  also  such  of  the  narrative 
parts  as  seem  to  be  needed  to  keep  the  unity  and  movement  of  the 
story  clearly  in  mind  and  give  emphasis  to  the  important  incidents. 
In  reading  the  conversations,  the  class  will  be  asked  to  first  read 
silently,  imaging  that  they  hear  the  characters  talking  together, 
then  to  take  the  different  parts  and  by  voice  and  action  express 
themselves  in  accordance  with  the  character  impersonated.  In  read- 
ing the  narrative  and  descriptive  parts  the  class  may  close  books  and 
listen  to  the  reader  who  will  try  to  act  the  part  of  a  real  story-teller 
or  make  his  hearers  see  the  thing  described. 

To  fix  the  most  important  incidents  of  the  story  in  mind  and 
help  to  impress  their  meaning,  the  pupils  will  be  led  to  work  out 
suitable  illustrations  in  graphic  forms  as  in  paper  cuttings  or 
drawings.  At  the  end  of  the  study,  pupils  will  be  asked  to  tell 
what  they  like  best  in  the  story  and  why  and  to  discover  the  author's 
purpose  in  writing  it  as  stated  in  one  of  the  final  paragraphs. 

Material  Needed: — Copies  of  the  text  for  children's  use,  pictures 
of  mountain  scenery,  glaciers,  etc.,  dictionaries,  writing  materials 
and  materials  for  illustrations. 

NATUEE  STUDY. 

Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades. 

In  the  previous  grades  most  of  the  topics  which  come  within  the 
range  of -the  pupil's  observation  will  have  been  studied  in  a  general 
way.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  an  intensive  study  should  be 
made  of  some  of  these  topics. 

Animals : — Study  the  birds  of  the  community ;  name  and  classify 
them  and  be  familiar  with  their  habits  and  haunts ;  keep  bird  charts 
and  calendars ;  and  emphasize  the  great  value  of  birds  to  the  farmer. 
Reason  for  bird  laws.  Study  bees,  spiders  and  mosquitoes,  toads, 
frogs,  turtles  and  snakes. 


84 


Study  molds,  yeasts  and  bacteria  in  the  home ;  care  of  bread  boxes, 
sinks,  and  home  sanitation. 

Inasmuch  as  sixth  grade  nature  study  leads  directly  to  seventh 
grade  agriculture,  much  time  should  be  given  to  elementary  plant 
study.  Study  ferns,  mosses,  corn,  cane,  wheat  and  rye ;  conditions 
of  plant  growth ;  care  of  trees  by  pruning,  filling  knot  holes,  and 
spraying;  care  and  protection  of  the  forests. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

One  lesson  per  week  coming  on  the  same  day  each  week  at  the 
period  assigned  to  Nature  Study. 

Finish  the  Primer  of  Hygiene.  The  work  should  begin  with  some 
review  of  the  essential  points  of  the  previous  year's  work. 

"Whenever  references  are  made  to  parts  of  the  body,  or  other 
things,  which  the  child  may  not  understand,  very  careful  explana- 
tion should  be  made.. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Appleton's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic  is  the  adopted  text,  and 
this  book  is  completed  in  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  first  three  chapters  are  completed.  In  the 
first  semester  the  work  includes  review  and  preparation  and  much 
oral  work;  notation  and  numeration  extended  and  enlarged;  ad- 
dition and  substraction ;  multiplication  and  division  of  whole  num- 
bers and  fractions,  and  the  text  is  finished  to  include  page  85. 

In  the  second  semester  the  same  work  as  in  the  first  is  continued, 
and  denominate  numbers  and  decimal  fractions  are  included;  the 
text  should  be  completed  to  chapter  four  by  the  end  of  this  year. 

Throughout  the  whole  year  the  teacher  should  give  supplementary- 
problems  related  to  the  work  of  the  text. 

LANGUAGE. 

Book  One  is  to  be  completed  in  this  grade.  Begin  with  a  review 
of  Part  Two,  which  relates  to  letter  writing.  This  will  give  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  see  any  weaknesses  of  the  instruction  in  the 
previous  grade,  and  to  make  any  reviews  necessary  to  supplement 
and  strengthen  it.  In  many  of  the  lessons  of  this  grade,  much  that 
was  said  relative  to  the  work  of  the  4th  grade,  would  also  be  appli- 
cable; and  there  are  very  few  of  the  lessons  in  which  the  teacher 
should  not  still  go  over  the  lesson  with  the  class,  orally,  with  instruc- 
tions and  suggestions,  or  even  minute  directions  as  to  what  is  to  be 


85 


done,  before  the  pupil  does  his  seat  work,  necessary  in  working  out 
any  written  work  required.  The  few  definitions  that  are  given  in 
black  faced  type  should  be  subjects  of  sufficient  drill,  to  insure  that 
the  child  knows  them  not  only  well  enough  to  understand  them, 
but  to  readily  repeat  them  word  for  word. 

GEOOBAPHY. 

Globe  Study. 

1.  Globe  lessons,  four  weeks.  (General  direction  for  carrying 
on  this  work  given  below.) 

2.  Elementary  text  book  taken  up. 

3.  Transition  from  globe  to  map. 

4.  Eegional  study. 

(1)  North  America,  United  States  and  the  remaining  continents 
in  outline. 

1.  Form  and  Size. 

By  enlarging  the  conception  given  by  the  globe,  try  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  immense  ball  on  which  we  live,  how  it  is  composed  of 
rock,  mantled  over  with  loose  material  and  soil  of  varying  depth; 
that  immense  depressions  are  filled  with  water  forming  oceans  and 
separating  the  larger  land  masses  or  continents.  Instead  of  having 
diameter  and  circumference  committed  to  memory  as  such,  let  them 
be  used  as  data  for  simple  problems,  such  as  "How  long  would  it 
take  a  man  to  travel  around  the  earth  on  the  equator,  travelling 
at  an  average  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,"  At  best  the  globe  must 
stand  as  a  symbol  for  ideas  and  facts  too  large  for  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  child. 

2.  Motions  of  the  Earth. 

(a)  Revolution  around  the  sun.  Little  can  be  done  to  make 
this  motion  mean  much  to  the  child  because  he  cannot  experience  it. 
He  may  learn  that  it  is  the  time  required  to  make  one  such  revolu- 
tion that  determines  the  length  of  one  year.  This  revolution  is  only 
one  of  four  or  five  factors  which  combined  produce  seasons.  Review 
the  observations  on  seasons  made  in  the  third  grade  and  the  con- 
clusions thus  reached. 

(b)  Rotation  and  some  of  its  consequences. 

(1)  Succession  of  day  and  night. 

(2)  Directions,  north,  south,  east  and  west,  are  due  to  rotation. 
North  is  toward  the  north  pole.   The  north  pole  is  one  end  of  the 


86 

axis,  and  the  axis  is  due  to  rotation.  Do  not  use  the  expressions 
"up"  and  'Mown"  for  north  and  south. 

(3)  Show  how  directions  are  indicated  on  the  globe  by  meri- 
dians and  parallels;  the  former  run  north  and  south,  the  latter  run 
east  and  west.    Give  such  drill  in  using  these  direction  symbols. 

(4)  Location  of  places  on  the  earth.  Show  how  meridians  are 
numbered  east  and  w^est  from  a  given  prime  meridian,  and  the 
parallels  north  and  south  from  the  equator,  and  how  from  num- 
bers on  the  lines  which  intersect  at  a  given  place  it  is  possible  to  tell 
the  location  of  places  on  the  globe.  Give  abundant  drill  in  thus 
locating  places  until  the  child  can  readily  tell  the  approximate 
latitude  and  longitude  of  any  point  on  the  globe. 

3.  Distribution  of  Land  and  Waters  Continents  and  Oceans. 

(a)  Positions  of  continents  on  the  globe,  their  direction  from 
each  other,  the  bounding  and  intervening  oceans.  Explain  these 
great  land  and  water  bodies  to  the  child  before  introducing  their 
symbols.    The  idea  should  always  come  before  its  symbol- 

(b)  General  shape  and  form  of  continents,  with  a  few  of  the 
most  important  capes,  peninsulas,  islands,  seas,  gulfs  and  bays. 

(c)  Relative  size  of  continents  as  estimated  from  globe. 

Note : — For  this  work,  an  eighteen  inch  globe  is  almost  a  neces- 
sity. One  of  the  best  is  the  Pendant  Globe,  sold  by  the  Caxton  Com- 
pany, of  Chicago. 

4.  Climatic  Conditioi^s  on  the  Earth. 

Review  what  the  pupils  learned  in  the  fourth  grade  as  to  the  rela- 
tion of  high  sun  and  low  sun  to  the  warm  temperatures  of  summer 
and  the  cold  ones  of  winter.  Let  the  teacher  go  in  imagination  with 
the  class  to  the  equator,  and  tell  them  where  the  sun  rises  and  sets 
and  where  it  is  at  noon  at  various  times  during  the  year,  emphasiz- 
ing the  steep  rays  which  always  fall  here,  so  that  the  pupils  from 
their  own  experience  with  steep  rays  and  a  high  sun  ought  to  infer 
the  hot  temperature  of  this  region.  Then  go  with  them  to  the 
"Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,"  with  its  slanting  rays  and  low  sun 
and  let  them  infer  the  conditions  of'  temperature  there.  Locate  the 
doldrum  belt  near  the  equator  with  its  hot,  moist  climate,  with  its 
daily  rains.  Contrast  with  this  rainy  belt  the  hot  dry  regions  on 
either  side,  over  which  the  trade  winds  blow  making  such  deserts 
as  the  Sahara,  Kalahara  and  the  one  in  Australia.  Now  contrast 
with  the  uniformly  hot  and  dry  climate  of  the  deserts  or  the  uni- 


87 


formly  hot  and  moist  climate  of  the  doldmm  belt,  the  variable 
weather  of  the  temperate  zone  as  it  has  been  observed  by  the 
child. 

Regional  Geography. 

1.  Transition  from  Globe  to  Map. 

The  pupils  should  have  become  so  familiar  with  the  globe  that 
^they  are  able 

(a)  To  locate  any  place  in  approximately  its  correct  latitude 
and  longitude. 

(b)  To  tell  directions  on  the  globe. 

(c)  To  know  at  a  glance  the  names  of  the  various  continents 
from  their  shape  and  outline. 

It  now  becomes  necessary  to  represent  various  features  of  sur- 
face land  drainage,  etc.,  with  greater  detail  than  can  be  done  on 
the  globe,  so  the  map  must  be  introduced.  In  order  that  the  pupils 
do  not  form  wrong  conceptions,  owing  to  the  flat  surface  upon  which 
a  map  is  made,  the  use  of  the  sand  table  is  recommended.  Here  the 
relief  form  may  be  represented  and  the  concept  transferred  to  the 
map.  When  the  pupil  knows  the  meaning  of  all  the  various  sym- 
bols, can  tell  direction  on  the  map,  locate  places  when  their  lati- 
tude and  longitude  are  given,  and  knows  how  to  use  the  scale,  he 
is  then  prepared  to  read  and  study  the  map. 

2.  The  Use  of  the  Map. 

In  studying  a  region,  there  is  much  information  concerning  posi- 
tion, form  and  boundaries,  size,  surface  and  drainage  that  can  be 
much  better  read  from  the  map  than  it  can  from  the  text.  This 
work  should  be  done  in  the  class  and  from  good  wall  maps  that  show 
the  physical  features  of  the  region  studied.  The  work  of  map 
reading  should  be  done  at  first  under  the  direction  and  questioning 
of  the  teacher.  Organize  your  class  into  an  imaginary  exploring 
party,  and  as  you  sail  in  imagination  up  the  Mississippi,  Amazon 
or  Nile,  tell  them  by  word  and  picture  of  the  wonderful  sights  that 
would  greet  their  eyes  were  they  really  sailing  up  those  rivers. 
Make  the  symbols  on  the  map  speak  of  real  rivers,  mountains  and 
plains.  When  the  map  has  told  all  it  can  in  this  way,  let  the  pupils 
read  what  the  text  has  to  say.  What  it  does  say  will  mean  some- 
thing because  they  are  prepared  to  understand  it. 


88 


3.  The  Atlas  Habit 

It  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  start  the  pupils  of  this  age  in  the 
formation  of  the  right  atlas  habit.  Whenever  in  the  preparation  of 
a  reading,  history  or  geography  lesson,  the  pupils  read  of  a  city, 
river,  mountain  or  other  geographical  feature,  the  teacher  should 
insist  that  he  stop  and  look  up  in  his  atlas  the  location  of  the  place. 
Places  located  in  this  way  have  something  with  which  they  can  be 
associated  and  will  be  remembered  the  longer  because  of  this  asso- 
ciation. 

4.  Map  Drawing. 

Map  drawing  is  a  means  to  an  end,  and  this  end  is  the  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  position,  form,  size,  surfiace,  drainage,  etc.,  of 
the  regions  studied.  The  sand  table  should  be  used  only  as  a  means 
of  expression  by  the  child,  as  a  means  of  teaching  new  ideas  and 
concepts.  If  the  child  has  studied  directly  some  gully  or  valley, 
the  reproduction  of  his  conception  of  it  is  an  excellent  means  of 
fixing  the  concept  in  his  mind. 

Outline  for  Continental  Study  of  North  America. 

I.  Position- 

1.  In  zones. 

2.  In  hemispheres. 

3.  In  relation  to  bordering  waters. 

4.  In  relation  to  other  continents. 

II.  Form. 

1.  General :  Roughly  triangular. 

2.  Actual,  determined  by: 

(a)  Its  more  important  indentations. 

(b)  Its  more  important  prolongations. 

Ill-  Size. 

1.  As  compared  with  other  continents.  This  should  be  done  in 
an  approximate  way  only.   No  area  in  square  miles  is  to  be  given. 

2.  Aa  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  stretches  entirely  across  the 
temperate  zone  and  reaches  into  the  arctic  circle  on  the  north  and 
the  torrid  on  the  south. 

How  long  would  it  take  to  journey  in  various  directions  across  it 
at  different  rates?   Give  problems  to  be  solved. 


89 


rV.    Eelief.  (data  to  be  secured  largely  from  map.) 

1.  Highlands : 

Rocky  Mountain  highlands. 
Appalachian  highlands. 

2.  Lowlands: 
Plains : 

The  great  central  plain. 
The  Atlantic  Coastal  plain. 
The  Gulf  Coastal  Plain. 

V.  Drainage. 
Gulf  drainage. 
Atlantic  drainage. 
Pacific  drainage. 

yi.  Distribution  of  people:  Where  dense,  where  sparse,  as  de- 
termined by  the  occupations  of  the  people  and  the  food  produc- 
ing capacity  of  the  various  sections. 

VII.  Political  divisions. 

1.  United  States  and  Alaska. 

2.  Dominion  of  Canada. 

3.  Mexico- 

4.  Central  America. 

The  order  of  topics  in  the  study  of  North  America  is  followed  in 
the  study  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole.  VIII.  (Relief),  X.  (Cli- 
mate) and  XI  (Possibilities  of  Occupation),  are  to  be  treated  with 
greater  fulness  because  of  their  greater  importance.  It  is  the  large 
general  truths  of  relief,  climate,  natural  resources  and  industry 
which  are  wanted,  not  isolated  evidences  of  geographical  relation- 
ships. 

VIII.  Relief: 

1.  This  includes  a  study  of  the  differences  in  character,  eleva- 
tions and  extent  between  the  two  great  highland  masses. 
In  this  connection  the  chief  ranges  should  be  named,  located 
and  characterized. 

IX.  Drainage. 

Chief  drainage  lines  and  their  relation  to  the  relief  forms. 
Drill  most  upon  the  streams  which  are  commercially  important- 

X.  Climate. 

'  Show  the  position  of  the  United  States  on  the  globe.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  northern  part  is  near  the  Arctic  zone.  Locate  the 
home  state  and  the  city  or  village  nearest  to  the  school.    Have  the 


90 


children  recall  the  usual  weather  conditions  during  the  summer  and 
winter  in  their  own  home  region.  Show  pictures  of  southern 
scenes  and  let  the  children  tell  how  the  northern  and  southern 
seasons  differ.  The  children,  through  their  nature  study  should 
bt-  familiar  with  the  processes  of  evaporation  and  condensation  of 
moisture. 

Explain  how  moisture  evaporates  over  the  sea  and  is  borne  into 
the  interior  to  be  condensed  and  fall  as  rain  over  the  land.  Show 
upon  maps  the  distribution  of  rainfall  in  the  United  States.  Have 
pupils  locate  on  wiall  maps  regions  of 

1.  Abundant  rainfall ; 

(a)  Where  th6  rain  is  well  distributed  and  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  warm  enough  to  produce  abundant  vegetation,  and 

(b)  .  Where  the  rain  is  abundant  in  amount  and  in  a  warm  reg- 
ion, but  where  not  well  distributed,  resulting  in  arid  or  semi-arid 
wastes,  and 

(c)  .  Where  the  rain  is  abundant,  but  in  cold  regions,  resulting 
in  snow. 

2.  Medium  rainfall,  enough  so  that  crops  will  grow. 

3.  Slight  rainfall,  resulting  in  deserts. 

XI.  Possibilities  of  Occupation. 

As  a  result  of  the  relief,  temperature  and  rainfall,  it  will  be 
found  that  certain  parts  of  the  United  States  are  suited  to  certain 
industries,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  divide  the  states  into  groups  in 
which  the  same  industries  are  carried  on.    In  this  way  locate : 

1.  The  chief  agricultural  and  grazing  sections  and  their  chief 
productions. 

2.  The  mining  regions  and  the  most  important  minerals. 

3.  The  lumbering  regions  and  the  most  important  trees. 

4.  The  manufacturing  regions  and  manufactures. 

5.  The  fishing  grounds  and  the  chief  catches. 

XII.  States- 
Give  the  pupils  lan  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  a  state ;  point  out 

physical  regions  and  state  groups  and  have  them  indentify  these 
groups  by  their  leading  industries. 

Only  a  few  of  the  leading  industrial  and  commercial  cities  should 
be  studied,  and  these  should  be  closely  identified  with  the  industrial 
region  in  which  they  are  situated  and  with  their  leading  produc- 
tions. 

Alaska  should  be  considered  with  the  United  States. 


91 


The  work  thus  far  outlined  will  occupy  the  first  half  of  the 
year.  The  second  half  should  be  devoted  to  a  very  rapid  survey 
of  the  other  continents  with  but  little  reference  to  individual 
countries  except  in  case  of  Europe,  where  the  leading  countries  are 
to  be  located  and  characterized. 

The  text  in  the  fifth  year  should  be  descriptive  in  character. 
Only  the  more  important  physical  and  political  features  need  be 
emphasized.  Many  items  of  information  ordinarily  included  in 
geographical  text  books  must  be  excluded.  Items  of  history  and 
government  have  no  place  here. 

The  remainder  of  the  year  should  be  spent  upon  the  following 
countries  : 

Europe. 

Asia. 

Africa. 

Australia. 

The  chief  points  to  be  covered  are :  ^ 

1.  Position- 

2.  Form. 

3.  Size. 

4.  Relief. 

5.  Drainage. 

6.  Climate. 

7.  Occupations  and  industrial  regions. 

8.  Centers  of  population  and  chief  cities. 

Be  simple;  confine  the  children  to  the  study  of  geography  and 
do  not  go  into  details- 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

The  aims  in  teaching  the  history  of  the  United  States  are  (1) 
to  secure  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  discovery  and  settlement 
of  our  country,  of  the  growth  of  the  colonies  and  of  the  forming 
of  our  national  government;  (2)  to  trace  our  growth  as  a  nation 
since  our  separation  from  Great  Britian  and  to  learn  in  what  re- 
spects our  development  is  notable;  (3)  to  discover  the  causes  of  this 
growth.  Why  are  we  as  a  nation  what  we  are  ?  How  and  why  do 
we  differ  from  other  nations?  (4)  To  develop  the  pupil's  character 
through  the  influence  of  great  historic  characters;  (5)  to  develop 
in  the  pupil  a  real  genuine  patriotism.  True  patriotism  is  ''love 
of  country"  not  because  of  its  bigness,  or  its  wealth,  but  because 
of  its  righteousness,  fairness  and  justice;  and  to  show  something 


92 


of.  the  continuity  of  plan  and  purpose  which  runs  through  the 
movements  and  events  which  control  the  organization  of  society. 

The  foundation  for  the  study  of  history  should  be  laid  in  the  lower 
grades.  This  foundation  work  should  not  be  entirely  incidental 
but  should  have  a  definite  purpose  which  should  be  to  furnish  a 
body  of  facts  and  knowledge  by  which  to  interpret  the  new  series  of 
facts  now  to  be  presented,  to  train  the  imagination  to  construct 
mental  pictures  of  the  events  described,  and  to  create  an  interest 
in  the  subject.  If  this  preparatory  work  is  done  properly,  the 
difficulties  attending  the  first  attempt  at  the  study  of  history  will 
be  greatly  lessened. 

The  approach  to  history  should  be  through  the  story  and  through 
biography.  This  feature  has  been  kept  in  mind  in  the  course  out- 
lined for  reading  and  literature  and  the  teacher  should  refer  back 
to  that  outline  at  this  point.  The  early  interest  of  the  child  is  not  in 
history  as  la  scientific  study,  but  in  the  stories  of  men  and  in 
their  lives  irrespective  of  their  relation  to  larger  movements. 

The  pupil  begins  the  acquisition  of  historical  material  as  isolated 
facts.  He  organizes  these  into  series  later,  and  constructs  his  phil- 
osophy of  history  last.  The  teacher  should  observe  carefully  this 
order  of  development. 

Cultivate  the  imagination ;  that  is,  make  use  of  pictures  and  maps 
to  assist  the  mind  to  image  the  things  which  are  described. 

History,  in  its  ordinary  aspect,  is  produced  by  people  doing 
things,  sometimes  singly,  sometimes  in  larger  or  smaller  groups. 
The  ability  to  reconstruct,  in  imagination,  the  conditions  and  act- 
ions of  the  individuals  makes  the  description  clear  and  saves  from 
dead  memorizing.  History  is  a  thing  of  life  and  action,  and  should 
be  taught  so  as  to  bring  out  these  facts- 
Use  a  variety  of  methods  in  teaching.  History  lends  itself  well  to 
recitation  by  topics  because  of  the  story  element  and  pupils  ought 
to  be  trained  to  tell  connected  facts  in  series.  This  method  tests  the 
strength  of  the  imagination  and  should  show  the  teacher  whether 
or  not  her  pupils  are  getting  hold  of  the  work  in  proper  manner. 
The  question  method  should  be  frequently  resorted  to  to  develop 
relations  that  may  not  have  appeared  clear  to  pupils.  Topical 
outlines  and  chapter  analysis  should  be  employed  for  rapid  review 
work.  Reviews  of  persons  and  of  prominent  dates,  giving  a  signifi- 
cant fact  pertaining  to  each,  will  also  afford  variety  of  method  and 
can  be  made  to  lend  interest. 

History  and  Geography.   Make  frequent  use  of  maps  to  fix  loca- 


93 


tion  of  incidents  and  events.  These,  in  general,  should  be  merely 
outlined  and  may  be  sketched  free  hand  on  the  blackboard.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  have  pupils  prepare  a  careful  outline  map  at  the 
beginning  of  the  work  and  fill  in  from  day  to  day  as  the  occasion 
may  require. 

The  maps  may  be  made  by  the  pupils  themselves  or  outline  maps 
may  be  purchased  and  filled  in.  The  teacher  should  be  guided  by 
his  own  judgment  as  to  what  shall  be  put  upon  the  maps.  Maps 
may  be  made  showing  the  claims  of  various  European  countries  to 
parts  of  the  new  world;  of  the  early  settlements;  of  the  typical 
colonies ;  of  territorial  growth  of  military  campaigns,  etc. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  pupils  study  closely  the  maps  given 
in  the  text.  Where  these  are  of  small  areas  or  sections  of  the 
country,  teachers  should  see  that  pupils  understand  their  relation 
to  the  general  map. 

In  general,  three  things,  the  event,  the  time,  and  the  place,  should 
be  correlated. 

Supplement  the  work  of  the  required  text.  No  single  volume 
can  give  a  full  account  of  American  History  The  events  are  too 
numerous.  Each  writer  selects  what  he  believes  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant facts.  All  writers  do  not  agree  as  to  the  importance  of 
various  facts,  hence  some  points  are  contained  in  one  book  that  are 
not  found  in  others.  It  can  be  made  a  matter  of  interest  for  pupils 
to  look  up  these  additional  facts.  If  pupils  are  asked  to  do  so,  many 
of  them  will  bring  other  books  besides  the  text  book  from  which 
many  interesting  facts  can  be  gained.  This  method  of  treating  the 
subject  will  also  teach  them  to  study  the  subject  rather  than  the 
text. 

If  possible,  have  more  than  one  text  on  your  desk  and  permit 
your  pupils  to  use  them  as  often  as  they  desire  to  do  so. 

Collect  stories  and  anecdotes  regarding  important  events  or 
prominent  persons.  These  can  be  used  to  illustrate  and  illuminate 
the  text.  Make  a  history  scrap  book.  The  foot  notes  in  Barnes* 
History  of  the  United  States  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  kind  of  ma- 
terial to  collect. 

Read,  or  have  read,  poems  founded  on  historic  incidents.  Joaquin 
Miller's  ''Columbus";  ''Paul  Revere's  Ride";  "Sheridan's  Ride"; 
"Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic";  "The  Rising";  "Commemora- 
tion Ode";  "The  Fight  at  Concord  Bridge";  "The  American 
Flag";  "John  Burns  at  Gettysburg";  "The  Blue  and  the  Gray." 

National  Anthems  and  Patriotic  Songs  can  be  made  to  contribute 


94 


to  the  teaching  of  history.  Picture  postal  cards  rriiay  be  used  to 
good  advantage  in  history  teaching  as  well  as  in  teaching  geography. 

All  history  points  toward  the  present,  hence  teachers  should 
find  as  many  opportunities  as  possible  of  showing  how  events  and 
conditions,  as  they  now  exist,  are  dependent  upon  the  past.  A  fact 
has  little  interest  in  itself.  It  gains  its  interest  and  significance 
because  of  its  relations  to  other  facts  and  it  has  greater  signifi- 
cance and  interest  if  it  is  related  to  facts  near  at  hand-  The  study 
of  history  should  enable  us  to  understand  the  present.  History 
and  current  events  are  but  parts  of  the  same  theme. 

The  opportunity  afforded  by  history  for  ''oral"  recitation  is  a 
splendid  chance  to  cultivate  the  power  of  expression.  See  that  the 
statements  made  in  reciting  are  in  good,  clear  connected  sentences. 
Let  this  work  broaden  and  improve  the  vocabulary. 

History  is  a  great  reservoir  of  material  for  moral  instruction. 
Study  the  conduct  of  historic  characters  with  reference  to  their 
actions  as  right  or  wrong.  There  are  characters  which  we  admire, 
as  Washington,  Lincoln,  Franklin,  etc.,  and  there  are  those  whom 
we  do  not  like,  as,  Arnold,  Burr,  Gates,  etc.  Why?  Without  at- 
tempting primarily  'Ho  point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale"  the  quali- 
ties of  conduct  may  be  presented  so  as  to  have  great  effect  upon  the 
notions  of  right  and  wrong  which  the  pupils  are  forming.  In  other 
words,  these  things  help  them  to  form  their  own  ideals  of  life  and 
conduct. 

Make  your  history  work  teach  true  patriotism.  We  believe  in 
our  country.  We  are  proud  of  its  history  and  of  its  strength  and 
position  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  We  are  proud  of  our  form 
of  government  and  of  the  degree  of  liberty  of  thought  and  action 
which  we  enjoy.  But  we  are  not  perfect.  There  are  many  things 
yet  needed  to  make  us  an  ideal  nation.  We  want  our  nation  to  be 
known  best  not  for  its  wealth,  not  its  size,  not  its  past  history,  but 
for  its  real  freedom  and  absolute  justice  as  between  man  and  man, 
and  in  its  relation  to  other  nations- 

As  the  study  proceeds  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  work  which  has 
been  done  previously.  Relate  each  new  lesson  to  that  which  pre- 
cedes, and  call  attention  of  pupils  to  new  facts  as  they  are  intro- 
duced and  to  their  effect  on  the  course  of  events. 

Where  teachers  have  not  made  special  preparation  for  the  teach- 
ing of  history  they  will  secure  valuable  suggestions  regarding  its 
purposes  and  manner  of  presenting  material  in  reading  some  one  or 
more  of  these  books:    McMurry's  Special  Method  in  History— 


95 


The  Macmillan  Company;  Methods  of  Teaching  and  Studying  His- 
ory  (edited  by  Hall) — D.  C.  Heath  &  Company;  Hinsdale's  How  to 
Study  and  Teach  History — D.  Appleton  &  Company ;  Mace 's  Method 
in  History  for  Teachers  and  Students — G-inn  &  Company ;  Bourne 's 
The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics — Longmans,  Green  &  Company. 

Teachers  who  wish  for  a  detailed  outline  in  history  would  do  well 
to  secure  Bliss's  History  in  the  Elementary  Schools — Am.  Book  Co. ; 
or  Channing  and  Hart's  Guide  to  American  History — Ginn  &  Com- 
pany. The  first  of  these  books  is  especially  rich  in  its  suggestion  of 
topics  and  sources  of  information  upon  them. 

SPELLING. 

See  suggestions  in  fourth  grade. 

WRITING. 

See  suggestions  in  first  grade. 

SIXTH  YEAR. 

LITERATURE. 

General  Suggestions. 

In  the  general  discussion  of  the  subject  of  reading,  a  distinction 
was  made  between  the  two  phases  of  reading  as  a  school  subject, 
which  are :  first,  oral  reading,  in  which  emphasis  is  partly  put  upon 
the  power  to  give  suitable  expression  to  the  meaning  of  the  printed 
page,  and  second,  silent  reading,  in  which  the  emphasis  is  all  on  the 
ability  to  obtain  the  meaning  of  the  printed  words. 

The  teacher  has  also  doubtless  noted  that  reading  as  a  class 
subject,  with  distinct  recitation  periods  and  with  emphasis  upon  the 
oral  phase,  has  not  been  continued  in  this  course  of  study  beyond  the 
fifth  year.  A  set  of  literature  books,  however,  was  adopted  for  the 
sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  The  subject  of  Literature,  there- 
fore, for  these  grades,  takes  the  place  which,  in  the  previous  grades, 
was  occupied  by  reading.  The  stories,  poems,  and  other  selections, 
which  have  been  put  into  the  volumes  referred  to,  are  of  a  very  high 
order  of  literary  merit.  The  greater  part  of  these  pieces  have  won 
an  established  place  as  gems  and  classics  of  English  Literature. 

The  child  who  has  not  some  familiarity  with  at  least  a  great  many 
of  these,  has  missed  one  of  the  most  priceless  inheritances  of  the 
English  race. 


96 


Sixth  Grade. 

In  this  course  of  study  it  is  assumed  that  the  child  who  has 
completed  the  five  years*  work  in  reading  has  gained  sufficient  skill 
in  oral  reading  for  ordinary  purposes  and  has  reached  the  stage  of 
development  where  he  can  get  quite  well  the  thought  of  the  printed 
page  when  the  subject  matter  is  properly  within  his  understanding. 

The  class  should  use  book  one  of  the  literature  for  class  work,  in 
which  it  is  thought  all  the  selections  would  fall  well  within  their 
power  of  comprehension.  To  again  emphasize  the  point  already 
referred  to,  the  emphasis  in  class  work  this,  year  will  not  be  in  the 
matter  of  oral  reading,  but  in  the  matter  of  having  the  children 
understand  the  selections  readily  and  appreciate  their  literary 
merit.  The  book  is  well  designed  with  a  view  to  this  end,  and  gives 
the  teacher  ample  help  and  suggestions  along  this  line.  Many  of 
the  poetical  selections  and  any  of  the  prose  that  may  be  suitable, 
should  be  memorized  by  the  class.  In  literary  exercises  on  various 
special  occasions,  it  is  far  more  profitable  to  the  child  to  memorize 
classics,  such  as  these,  for  purposes  of  recitation,  than  it  is  for  him 
to  waste  his  time  with  much  of  the  inferior  sort  of  material  that  is 
too  often  used  for  this  purpose.  The  composition  and  written  work, 
that  is  a  part  of  the  course  in  English,  might  sometimes  also  find 
its  basis  in  some  of  the  literary  material  of  this  book.  The  book 
should  be  completed  during  the  year. 

NATURE  STUDY. 

See  fifth  year. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AlVD  HYGIENE. 
Sixth  Grade. 

Still  take  one  lesson  per  week  as  before.  Cover  the  first  100 
pages  of  the  Primer  of  Sanitation.  Give  oral  lessons  and  talks  as  in- 
dicated above,  not  necesarily  requiring  the  pupil  to  own  a  book. 
Care  should  be  taken  here,  as  before,  that  pupils  have  an  opportunity 
to  see  pictures,  drawings,  diagrams,  etc.,  that  will  help  to  make  clear 
his  mental  images  of  the  subject  matter.  In  such  cases  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  bring  into  the  school  room  objects  illustrating  the  lesson, 
this  should  be  done.  For  instance  the  pupils  would  fiind  it  interest- 
ing to  try  to  identify  the  various  kinds  of  disease  carrying  musqui- 
toes  mentioned.  The  teaching  of  the  subject  is  practically  a  failure  if 
it  does  not  result  in  the  pupil's  use  and  application  of  the  principles 


97 


learned  so  that  tne  health  of  himself  and  his  associates  at  home  and 
elsewhere  will  show  improvement.  The  teacher,  as  far  as  possible, 
should  stimulate  the  desire  of  the  pupil  to  be  well,  to  apply  hygienic 
principles  to  his  own  living,  and  to  carry  this  application  to  the 
point  that  it  will  result  in  fixed  habits  of  right  living. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Denominate  numbers,  measuring  and  methods  of  solving  prob- 
lems, are  dwelt  upon  as  outlined  in  chapters  four  and  five  of  the 
text;  these  two  chapters  are  completed  in  the  first  semester  of  this 
grade. 

In  the  second  semester  decimal  fractions,  measuring,  percent- 
age, gain  and  loss,  discount,  interest,  banking,  taxes  and  duties,  in- 
surance and  rents,  are  taken  up,  and  the  text  gives  a  great  number 
of  review  problems  in  these  and  related  topics. 

Chapters  six  and  seven,  finishing  part  one  of  the  text,  are  com- 
pleted. 

All  through  this  year,  as  in  the  preceding  one,  many  supple- 
mentary problems,  the  answer  of  which  is  not  given  to  the  pupil  un- 
til he  solves  and  proves  the  problem,  are  given  by  the  teacher  to 
strengthen  the  pupil  in  independent  work. 

LANGUAGE. 

Book  two  should  be  begun  in  this  grade.  Book  one  related  mostly 
to  training  in  the  use  of  the  language,  with  the  simpler  forms  of 
composition.  Book  two,  while  still  emphasizing  this  training  in 
composition,  gives  a  considerable  amount  of  what  is  called  ''techni- 
cal language,"  which  involves  many  grammatical  distinctions  and 
definitions.  As  suggested  heretofore,  these  definitions  should  be 
very  carefully  taught,  to  the  end  that  the  child  should  be  able  to 
give  a  word  for  word  statement  of  them.  It  has  been  found  by  ex- 
perience that  the  knowledge  of  grammatical  principles  will  not  of 
itself,  cause  a  person  to  write  or  speak  either  fluently  or  grammat- 
ically. Therefore,  the  teacher  should  give  great  care  to  the  exer- 
cises given  in  the  book,  in  which  the  grammatical  principles  are 
illustrated  and  applied.  There  may  be  instances  in  which  the 
child's  ability  to  express  himself  shows  that  the  time  taken  for  a 
particular  exercise  given  in  the  book  would  be  wasted,  in  which  case 
certain  exercises  may  be  omitted.  On  the  other  hand,  at  certain 
places  there  will,  undoubtedly,  be  instances  in  which  it  is  evident 
that  the  child  needs  training  in  excess  of  that  given  by  the  exer- 


98 


cises  supplied  by  the  book,  in  which  case  the  teacher  should  give 
supplementary  lessons.  While  there  is,  perhaps,  in  many  of  the  les- 
sons, less  need  for  preliminary  oral  work  preceding  the  child's 
seat  work ;  still,  the  teacher  should  never  assign  a  lesson  merely  by 
page  or  section,  unless  she  is  absolutely  sure  that  the  child's  con- 
ception of  what  is  to  be  done,  and  his  knowledge  of  the  principles 
required  in  doing  it,  are  sufficiently  full  to  render  it  certain  that 
he  will  work  intelligently  and  to  a  definite  end.  It  will  be  observed 
that  many  chapters  consist  of  a  preliminary  part  in  which  certain 
grammatical  facts  or  principles  are  developed,  defined,  and  ex- 
plained followed  by  exercises  which  are  designed  to  test  the  pupil 
on  these  things  and  to  give  him  training  in  the  practical  application 
of  his  knowledge  relating  to  them. 

In  many  instances  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  give  one  oral  lesson 
upon  the  definitive  and  explanatory  part,  and  have  the  child,  at 
his  seat,  write  out  and  bring  in  the  exercises  for  the  succeeding 
lesson.  For  instance  in  chapter  52,  on  page  104,  while  some  pupils 
would  get  a  sufficiently  good  idea  of  the  compound  sentence  by 
merely  reading  what  the  text  book  says  in  the  first  few  sections, 
still,  there  are  many  children  who  will  not  do  so  and  certainly  the 
class,  as  a  whole,  will  develop  the  conceptions  given,  much  better, 
after  the  part  referred  to  is  given  as  an  oral  class  exercise,  in  which 
the  teacher  and  the  members  of  the  class  participate. 

The  first  year's  work  should  complete  the  book  up  to  page  156. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Outline  for  West  Virginia. 

1.  Position. 

2.  Form. 

3.  Size,  as  indicated  by  (1)  the  latitude,  (2)  distance  by  scale  of 
miles  east  and  west,  north  and  south,  (3)  area,  as  compared  with 
other  states. 

4.  Relief: 

(a)  .    The  Alleghany  Mountains. 

(b)  .    The  Plateau  Section, 

(c)  .    The  rounded  hills. 

Draw  map  of  State  to  simple  scale. 

5.  Drainage;  The  sources  of  rivers,  their  courses  and  direc- 
tions. 


99 


6. 

Climate. 

7, 

Soils. 

8 

Vesfftation 

9. 

Animal  Life. 

10. 

Mineral  wealth. 

11. 

Manufacturing. 

12. 

Distribution  of  population. 

13. 

Chief  trade  routes. 

14. 

History  and  government.    Little  should  be  done  with  this 

topic. 

The  study  of  the  state  should  be  thorough.  It  is,  both  physically 
and  industrially,  more  easily  comprehended  than  more  distant 
coLintries,  more  so  than  distant  parts  of  the  United  States. 


The  study  of  the  continents  will  be  more  full,  involving  a  more 
complete  knowledge  of  the  physical,  industrial  and  political  con- 
ditions in  all  of  the  more  important  countries,  but  it  will  also  be  of 
an  entirely  different  character.  The  children  are  now  to  see  the 
world  as  a  world  of  order  and  unity,  where  the  different  life  forms 
and  their  environment  are  adjusted  to  each  other. 

The  continents  studied  this  year  are  South  America,  Africa,  Asia 
and  Australia.  This  is  for  two  reasons,  the  first  reason  being  that 
the  countries  of  these  several  continents  and  their  characteristic 
features  and  industries  were  also  wholly  neglected  in  the  first  sur- 
vey of  the  fifth  grade,  and  the  second  being  that  the  seventh  year 
will  bring  with  it  added  maturity  and  a  more  thorough  comprehen- 
sion of  the  two  important  continents  left  for  that  year. 

The  Text  Book  and  Supplementary  Readers. 

To  distinguish  between,  and  bring  out,  the  important  from  the  un- 
important, to  drill,  illustrate,  explain  and  supplement  the  text,  is 
the  function  of  the  teacher.  Don't  expect  the  child  to  know  every 
city,  stream,  etc.,  that  the  text  mentions.  To  give  life  and  inter- 
est to  the  dry  facts  of  the  text  book,  supplementary  readers  should 
be  provided  by  the  school  board.  The  teacher  should  have  many 
sources  of  information  to  clothe  the  bare  facts  of  the  text  with  life 
and  interest  which  the  study  of  geography  ought  to  inspire. 

Books  for  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades. 

Carpenter : 

North  America.    American  Book  Co.    60  cents. 
South  America.    American  Book  Co. 


100 


Africa.    American  Book  Co. 

Asia.    American  Book  Co. 

Australia:    Our  Colonies. 

Morris. — Home  Life  in  All  Lands. 

Tarr  &  McMurry.— The  Earth  as  a  Whole. 

HISTOEY. 

See  History  in  fifth  grade. 

SPELLING, 

Sixth  and  Seventh  Grades. 

In  the  sixth  and  seventh  years  the  work  of  the  text  should  be  con- 
tinued, with  a  review  of  preceding  years ;  a  few  more  rules  for  spell- 
ing may  be  taught;  word  building,  word  analysis,  and  origin  of 
words  may  be  emphasized;  definition  of  words  should  also  receive 
some  attention.  It  is  often  helpful  at  times  to  provide  for  written 
spelling  matches. 

WRITING. 

See  first  grade. 

SEVENTH  YEAR. 
LITEBATUEE. 

If  not  already  familiar  with  the  discussion  given  under  the  sixth 
grade  the  teacher  should  read  it.  The  suggestions  made  there  are 
in  the  main  applicable  to  the  work  of  the  seventh  grade.  The  pupil 
should  have  a  book  which  will  be  number  two  in  the  series.  Al- 
though dramatization  is  usually  most  used  in  connection  with  the 
lower  grades,  still  there  are  excellent  reasons  for  its  use  in  the  upper 
ones.  It  may  here  be  noted  that  very  many  of  the  stories  contained 
in  the  text  for  this  year  would  lend  themselves  very  readily  to  dram- 
atization, which,  of  course,  might  be  of  little  more  elaborate  nature 
than  that  usually  used  in  the  primary  grades.  Some  of  the  stories 
might  be  worked  up  into  little  dramatizations  or  plays  for  the  exer- 
cises on  special  occasions.  The  teacher  will  find  many  opportunities 
to  correlate  this  work  with  their  work  in  literature,  spelling,  geogra- 
phy and  history,  and  should  not  neglect  any  good  opportunity  to  do 
so. 

AGEICULTUEE. 

General  Suggestions. 
When  considering  a  course  of  study  for  the  high  schools  or  the 


101 


grades,  the  problem  is  fairly  definite,  but  the  one- room  country 
school  may  mean  anything  from  several  small  children  to  a  roomful 
of  pupils  of  all  ages.  The  teacher  may  range  all  the  way  from  an 
inexperienced  girl  to  an  experienced  man  or  woman  with  excellent 
training,  but  two  factors  are  constant  in  the  country  school;  first, 
its  surroundings  are  strictly  rural,  and  second,  the  teacher  has  lit- 
tle supervision  and  what  is  done  or  is  not  done,  depends  largely  up- 
on the  personality  and  initiative  of  the  country  teacher. 

Here,  of  all  places,  is  the  best  opportunity  for  out  of  school  work, 
and  the  teacher  is  urged  to  make  use  of  this  phase  of  education. 
Just  as  the  girls  should  be  lead  to  connect  the  life  of  the  home  with 
the  work  of  the  school,  so  should  the  boys  for  a  definite  portion  of 
the  time  do  real  things  of  the  farm,  with  a  view  to  learning  the 
principles  involved. 

If  the  teacher  is  a  man  and  acquainted  with  the  business  of  farm- 
ing, let  him  choose  the  most  practical  portion  of  the  course  outlined 
and  apply  it  to  local  conditions.  If  it  is  a  corn  country,  let  the  boys ' 
club  be  a  corn  club,  for  corn  is  well  suited  to  the  work  of  boys.  Cer- 
tain small  fruits  and  vegetables  are  well  suited  to  school  children, 
and  small  animals  like  pigs  are  better  than  all,  because  the  gains  are 
rapid  and  certain. 

If  the  teacher  is  a  woman  or  unacquainted  with  farming,  but 
interested,  let  her  adopt  the  attitude  of  the  inquirer  and  choose 
those  problems  and  topics  that  produce  their  own  answers, avoiding 
those  which,  like  stock-judging,  require  more  technical  knowledge. 

The  work  in  Elementary  Agriculture  for  the  rural  schools  is  most 
practical  when  taken  up  in  the  seasonal  sequence  of  the  operations 
on  the  farm.  When  this  method  is  pursued,  illustrative  material  is 
easily  obtained.  The  interest  of  the  pupil  is  at  once  awakened, 
and  co-operation  with  the  farm  activities  of  the  community  is  nat- 
ural and  inevitable.  By  this  method.  Elementary  Agriculture  in 
the  public  schools  serves  its  main  purpose,  that  is  in  giving  acquaint- 
ance with  and  sympathy  for,  the  common  things  and  processes  of 
nature  as  it  touches  the  daily  life  of  the  farm.  With  this  princi- 
ple in  mind,  the  following  tentative  course  of  study  is  submitted  for 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the  public  schools : 

Autnmn. 

Reports  of  Vacation  Work. 

1.  Census  of  crops  produced  among  the  farmers  of  the  commun- 
ity during  the  summer. 


I 


102 


2.  Garden  or  field  work  done  by  the  pupils  during  the  summer. 

3.  Census  report  of  the  size  and  equipment  of  home  farms. 

4.  Keep  a  monthly  calendar  of  farm  operations. 

Insect  Studies. 

1.  Field  collection  of  the  common  insects,  everywhere  present  at 
the  season. 

2.  Classify  insects  in  groups  noting  the  farm  crops  they  attack. 

3.  Learn  common  names  and  prominent  characteristics  of  the 
orders  of  insects. 

4.  Distinguish  some  friends  and  foes  among  insects,  and  learn 
some  practical  methods  of  combating  insect  enemies. 

The  Wheat  Crop. 

1.  Preparation  of  wheat  ground,  and  methods  of  planting  v/heat. 
Fertilizing  wheat  grounds. 

2.  Study  of  wheat  seed  and  the  wheat  plant. 

3.  The  products  of  wheat  and  extent  and  value  of  the  crop. 

4.  Varieties  best  suited  to  the  locality. 

5.  Insect  and  fungous  enemies  of  wheat. 

Selecting  and  Storing  Corn. 

1.  Field  selection  of  seed  corn. 

2.  Judging  and  scoring  corn. 

3.  Methods  of  storing  seed  corn. 

4.  Corn  contests  and  corn  days  at  school. 

5.  Importance  and  value  of  the  corn  crop. 

Autumn  Fruit  Studies. 

1.  Studies  of  types  of  fruit. 

2.  Selecting  and  planting  young  fruit  trees. 

3.  Report  of  home  orchards  and  their  yields. 

4.  Storing  the  fruit  on  the  farm. 

5.  Judging  and  scoring  apples. 

Elementary  Studies  of  the  Stock  on  the  Farm. 

1.  Types  and  breeds  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep,hogs  and  poultry. 

2.  Feeding  and  care  of  each  kind  of  farm  animal.  Winter  pro- 
tection of  live-stock. 

3..   Determining  rations  for  farm  animals. 


103 


4.  Animal  products,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  meat,  eggs,  etc. 

5.  The  use  of  the  Babcock  Test  for  milk. 

6.  Reports  of  farm  animals  on  home  farm. 

Winter. 

Farm  Accounts  and  Records. 

1.  Farm  accounts  and  records  with  bookkeeping. 

2.  Records  of  crop  rotations. 

3.  Farm  taxes,  insurance,  and  general  business  management. 

4.  Make  daily  weather  records  in  neat  permanent  form. 

5.  Simple  studies  in  farm  machinery. 

6.  Country  life  interests,  the  rural  free  mail  delivery,  parcels 
post,  the  grange  and  other  agricultural  societies,  the  farmers'  read- 
ing, home  conveniences,  the  country  school,  church,  store,  roads, 
etc. 

Elementary  Soil  Studies. 

How  soil  is  formed. 
Kinds  of  soil. 

Relations  of  soil  to  water  and  to  plants. 
Some  methods  of  improving  the  soil. 
Manures  and  fertilizers. 
Drainage,  and  its  values. 
Use  of  legumes  and  crop  rotation. 
Reports  of  soil  on  the  home  farms. 
Plowing  hillsides. 
How  to  care  for  pasture  lands. 

Farm  Forestry. 

1.  Extent  and  importance  of  our  foresrts. 

2.  Influence  on  industries,  soil  and  water  supply. 

3.  The  farmer's  woodlot.    Its  use  and  importance. 

Caring  for  the  woodlot.  Planting  trees  and  cultivating  them  as  a? 
crop. 

Spring. 

Seeds  and  Seedlings. 

1.  Study  of  the  structure  of  various  large  seeds. 

2.  Germination  of  seeds  and  growth  of  seedlings. 

3.  Testing  seed  corn,  and  clover  seed. 


104 


4.  Simple  life  relations  of  soil,  water,  air,  and  light  to  the  grow- 
ing plants. 

5.  Practical  exercises  in  growing  plants. 

Orchard  and  Garden. 

1.  Pruning,  spraying  and  grafting  fruit  trees. 

2.  Methods  of  plant  propagation. 

3.  School  and  home  gardening.  Make  plans.  Keep  summer 
records.    Report  in  fall. 

4.  Beautifying  home  and  school  grounds. 

5.  Cultivation  and  tillage  of  orchard,  field  and  garden  crops. 

6.  Pastures  and  meadows. 

7.  Weeds,  identification  of  their  injury  and  control. 

8.  Beneficial  value  of  buds. 
Note: 

In  all  these  topics  suggested,  it  is  assumed  that  the  teacher  will 
use  both  text-books  and  practical  exercises  as  a  method  of  pro- 
cedure. About  on-e  half  of  the  work  should  be  text-book  recitations 
and  one  half  field  and  laboratory  work. 

The  work  of  this  course  is  outlined  for  one  year  in  the  rural 
schools,  either  for  the  seventh  or  eighth  grades.  It  frequently 
happens  that  country  school  pupils  of  these  grades  return  for  two  or 
three  years  to  do  the  same  work.  The  College  of  Agriculture,  not- 
ing this  fact,  will  undertake  to  issue  bulletins  each  month  of  the 
school  year,  supplementing  the  work  of  the  adopted  course,  giving 
new  matter  for  such  pupils  who  return  to  do  the  year  of  Agriculture 
again,  and  suggestions  to  the  teachers  in  making  the  course  helpful 
to  all  the  pupils. 

Special  Deyices  for  Agriculture  in  the  Country  School, 

Aside  from  the  detailed  course  given  above,  the  following  exer- 
cises are  especially  adapted  to  the  country  school  and  should  be 
worked  in  wherever  the  occasion  affords : 

(1)  .    Formation  of  local  agricultural  clubs  among  the  pupils. 

(2)  .    Raising  ^  acre  of  corn  in  competition  for  prizes. 

(3)  .  Exhibiting  best  ten  ears  from  corn  raised  by  the  pupils, 
at  the  County  Corn  Show. 

(4)  .    Exercises  in  judging  corn  by  the  score  card. 

(5)  .  Planting  best  ten  ears  in  ten  separate  rows  and  comparing 
the  yields. 

(G) .    Making  a  labeled  collection  of  weed  seeds  and  insects. 


105 


(7)  .  Examining  grass  seed  with  low  power  glass  for  weed 
seed  and  other  appurtenants. 

(8)  .    Testing  the  germinating  power  of  grain. 

(9)  .    Testing  milk  with  the  Babcock  Test. 

(10)  .  Feeding  a  small  pen  of  pigs  and  keeping  weights  of  corn 
consumed. 

(11)  .    Testing  soil  with  litmus  paper  for  acidity. 

(12)  .  Examining  roots  for  tubercles  and  making  a  list  of  legu- 
minous plants. 

(13)  .    Testing  from  moisture  in  the  time  of  droughts. 

(14)  .  Comparing  soil  of  whole  cultivated  field  with  that  of 
one  neglected. 

(15)  .    Planting  potatoes,  whole,  half  and  single  eyes. 

(16)  .    Treating  oats  for  smut. 

(17)  .    Treating  potatoes  for  scab. 

(18)  .    Splicing  and  tying  knots  in  ropes. 

(19)  .  Making  a  list  of  crop  acreage  and  yield  in  the  different 
farms  of  the  community. 

(20)  .    Keeping  a  weather  chart. 

(21)  .    Keeping  account  of  some  part  of  the  farm  home. 

(22)  .    Excursions  to  neighboring  farms  to  see  successful  features. 

(23)  .  Noting  dates  of  planting  and  harvesting  of  the  different 
crops  of  the  community. 

(24)  .  Identifying  the  different  breeds  of  live  stock  kept  in  the 
neighborhood  and  describing  their  difference. 

(25)  .    Taking  at  least  one  agriculture  paper  in  the  school. 

(26)  .  Securing  the  bulletin  from  the  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

(27)  .    Beginning  a  small  country  life  library. 

(The  above  suggestions  are  from  The  Illinois  State  Course  of 
Study.) 

ARITHMETIC. 

Chapters  eight,  nine  and  ten  of  part  two  of  the  text,  introduce  the 
fundamental  processes  and  decimals  in  a  larger  way  than  previously, 
and  longitude  and  time  is  taken  up ;  these  chapters  are  completed  in 
the  first  half  of  this  grade. 

In  the  second  semester  the  equation,  ratio  and  proportion,  larger 
applications  of  percentage,  taxes,  interest  and  banking  and  partial 
payments  are  taught;  this  completes  chapters  eleven,  twelve  and 
thirteen  of  part  two. 


106 


BOOKKEEPING. 

In  connection  with  the  work  in  arithmetic  for  this  grade  the  class 
should  be  carefully  drilled  in  the  matter  of  all  business  forms,  such 
as  checks,  notes,  due-bills,  drafts,  statements,  etc.,  as  are  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  arithmetic  processes  and  compilation  that 
constitute  the  work  of  the  year.  For  instance  no  class  should  study 
interest  without  a  careful  drill  upon  the  different  forms  of  promis- 
sory notes.  It  is  perhaps  better  to  secure  the  ordinary  commercial 
blank  forms  for  these,  a  few  of  which  a  teacher  can  readily  get  from 
any  bank  and  later  on  the  child  should  be  required  to  make  out  notes 
written  out  entirely  by  him  on  blank  paper.  The  use  of  the  blank 
would  result  in  a  good  form  being  fixed  in  his  mind  more  readily 
than  will  follow  the  child's  writing  them  out  entirely  at  first. 
Actual  notes  that  have  gone  through  the  bank  or  which  have  been 
handled  in  actual  life  will  likely  carry  with  them  the  element  of 
reality  in  a  way  to  make  a  stronger  appeal  to  the  child's  interest 
than  will  the  ^ '  make  believe ' '  notes  of  the  school-house.  Theref ore^ 
if  the  teacher  can  secure  these  it  will  be  an  excellent  thing  for  her  to 
use  these  as  the  basis  of  some  work.  In  all  the  commercial  business 
papers  mentioned  above  the  child  should  fix  in  mind  the  number  of 
especial  particulars.  For  instance  with  regard  to  a  check  the 
especial  particulars,  if  a  printed  blank  is  used,  are  the  date,  the 
name  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  payable,  the  amount  in  figures, 
the  amount  in  words,  the  signature  and  if  desired  the  purpose  for 
v/hich  issued,  thus  five  or  six  in  all.  This  should  be  emphasized  to 
the  child  so  that  he  will  never  write,  receive  or  even  see  a  check  that 
he  does  not  mentally  note  the  presence  of  all  these  particulars. 

A  great  deal  of  work  in  making  out  statements,  writing  business 
forms,  etc.,  can  be  done  in  this  grade  in  connection  with  the  arith- 
metic in  a  way  that  will  not  only  add  interest  and  vitality  to  the 
.  arithmetic  instructioii,  but  will  also  save  a  great  deal  of  time  for 
the  course  in  the  text-book  in  Bookkeeping  the  following  year. 

LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

The  year's  work  should  begin  with  some  review  of  the  last  year's 
work,  possibly  one  month  or  six  weeks  being  given  to  this  purpose.- 
The  book  should  be  completed  to  Part  3. 

Composition. 

Much  that  has  been  said,  relative  to  the  principles  and  methods; 


107 


to  be  followed  in  teaching  the  work  of  the  4th,  5th  and  6th  grades, 
will  also  apply  to  that  of  the  7th.  It  is  believed  by  many,  that  in- 
struction in  English  is  the  most  difficult  and  the  least  successful  of 
any  of  the  branches  taught  in  the  public  schools;  and  therefore, 
only  by  very  great  care  and  diligence,  and  especially  by  careful 
planning  of  her  work  in  the  subject,  will  the  teacher  be  successful. 

There  are  many  fine  grammatical  distinctions  that  present  great 
difficulty  of  understanding,  even  to  mature  students  of  the  subject. 
Some  of  these  it  is  unwise  to  expect  the  pupil  of  this  grade  to  see. 
Still  the  child,  who  is  carefully  instructed  and  trained,  need  have 
but  little  difficulty  in  understanding  the  proper  use  of  the  language 
even  as  regards  points  where  some  of  the  greatest  grammatical  con- 
troversies arise;  and  this,  after  all,  is  the  end  towards  which  the 
teacher  should  work.  The  teacher,  therefore,  would  do  well  not  to 
bewilder  the  child  by  discussions  of  the  points  of  syntax,  presented 
by  their  use  in  some  of  the  usages,  for  instance,  of  infinitives  and 
participles.  If  the  child  when  he  uses  them,  knows  how  to  combine 
these  forms  according  to  the  usages  found  in  good  literature,  that 
is  sufficient,  and  that,  with  proper  instruction,  he  can  learn  to  do. 

GEOGKAPHT. 

During  this  year  the  second  survey  of  Europe  and  North  Amer- 
ica is  completed.  The  important  countries  in  each  of  the  continents 
are  taken  up  with  special  reference  to  their  great  industries  and  the 
physical  and  social  conditions  influencing  them.  Notice  should 
be  taken  of  the  commercial  relations  existing  between  the  home  coun- 
tries and  their  several  colonies.  It  is  advisable  to  study  Europe 
first,  and  to  follow  with  North  America,  with  special  emphasis  upon 
the  United  States  and  West  Virginia. 

The  outlines  below  are  suggestive,  but  the  teacher  is  to  emphasize 
the  topics  from  VII-XV  rather  than  those  from  I-VI. 

I.  Position  : 

(1)  .  Relative. 

(2)  .  Absolute. 

II.  Form : 

(1)  .  Relative. 

(2)  .  Actual. 

(a)  .    As  shown  by  map. 

(b)  .  Indentations. 

(c)  .  Prolongations. 

(3)  .    Continental  shelf. 


108 

III.  Size. 

(1)  .  Eelative. 

(a)  .    Compared  with  other  continents. 

(b)  .    In  relation  to  oceans. 

(c)  .    What  part  of  the  whole  earth. 

(2)  .  Actual. 

(a)  .  Extreme  breadth  and  length  of  time  it  takes 
to  make  the  journey. 

(b)  .    Number  of  square  miles. 

IV.  Eelief  (data  secured  largely  from  map.) 

(1)  .    Highlands  including  plateaus. 

(a)  l  Position. 

(b)  .  Extent. 

(c)  .  Elevation. 

(d)  .    General  character. 

Broken  with  numerous  passes,  or 
Continuous,  with  few  peaks  or  passes. 
Structure,  mountain  folds,  or  blocks, 
Chief  passes. 

(e)  .  Arrangement: 

Parallel  ranges. 
Cross  ranges. 

(2)  .    Eelations  of  the  highlands  to  the  great  continental 

slopes,  great  drainage  systems,  interior  basins  and 
the  nature  of  coast  lines. 

(3)  .  Lowlands. 

(a)  .  Position. 

(b)  .  Extent. 

(c)  .  Structure. 

(d)  .  Kinds: 

Eolling  plains. 
Coast  plains. 
Flood  plains. 
Delta  plains. 

V.  Climate : 

1.  As  indicated  by  angle  of  suns  rays  or  latitude. 

2.  As  modified  by  elevation. 

3.  As  influenced  by  winds  from  ocean. 

4.  As  shown  by  isothermal  map. 

VI.  Eainf  all : 

1.    Eegion  of  moderate  and  heavy  rainfall. 


109 


2.  Influence  of  highlands  upon  winds  and  rainfall. 

3.  Location  of  rainless  areas  and  reason  therefor. 
VII.    Drainage : 

(1)  .    Chief  rivers  and  their  relation  to  the  land  forms 

which  they  have  been  instrumental  in  creating. 

(2)  .  Lakes: 

(a)  .    Fresh  water  lakes. 

(b)  .    Salt  water  lakes. 

YIII.  Soil: 

1.  That  which  has  been  formed  in  place. 

2.  That  which  has  been  transported. 

IX.  Zones  of  vegetation,  as  dependent  upon 

1.  Temperature,  as  determined  by  latitude,  altitude, 

proximity  to  water,  and  influence  of  ocean  currents. 

2.  Kainfall. 

3.  Character  of  the  soil. 

X.  Zones  of  waste,  as  dependent  upon 

1.  Lack  of  moisture. 

2.  Altitude. 

3.  Latitude. 

4.  Too  much  moisture. 

(a)  .  Swamp. 

(b)  Jungle. 

(c)  .    Bad  lands. 

5.  Poor  soil. 

XI.  Distribution  of  animal  life. 

XII.  Distribution  of  mineral  resources. 

XIII.  Distribution  of  population,  as  dependent  upon  possibili- 
ties of  occupation,  resources,  supply  and  demand  and  commercial 
advantages. 

XIV.  Development  and  location  of  centers  of  population  as 
showing  the  needs  of  the  people  for  commercial  centers,  manufac- 
turing centers,  and  government  centers. 

XV.  Development  of  commercial  and  trade  routes,  resulting 
from  the  effort  to  obtain  the  products  and  the  patronage  of  the 
other  people  of  the  world. 

Harbors. 
River  systems. 
Railways. 


110 


XVI.    Political  divisions  and  government. 

The  work  of  the  seventh  year  includes  Europe,  North  America, 
the  United  States  and  West  Virginia. 

The  study  of  the  advanced  text  book  should  be  begun  in  the  sixth 
grade  and  continued  through  the  seventh. 

Special  topics  suitable  for  development  and  comparison  with 
like  conditions  in  other  lands.  These  topics  should  lead  to  general 
truths.  They  will  furnish  material  for  reviews  of  other  places  on  the 
globe.  They  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  geography 
of  the  United  States. 

/.    Northeastern  section  and  north  central  section. 

1.  In  a  cotton  factory  at  Lowell,  Mass. 

2.  The  arsenal  and  gun  factory  at  Springfield. 

3.  The  Woolen  factories  at  Fall  River. 

4.  Watches  and  watch  makers  at  Waltham. 

5.  In  a  shoe  factory  at  Lynn. 

6.  The  granite  quarries  of  New  Hampshire. 

7.  Among  the  light  houses  along  the  coast. 

8.  New  York  harbor  and  Ellis  Island  ;  landing  of  immigrants. 

9.  Garden  farming  in  New  Jersey. 

10.  In  a  West  Virginia  coal  mine. 

11.  A  blast  furnace  at  Pittsburg. 

12.  The  oil  fields  of  West  Virginia. 

13.  The  peach  orchards  of  West  Virginia,  Maryland  and  Dela- 
ware. 

14.  The  oyster  beds  of  the  Chesapeake. 

15.  Tobacco  culture  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

16.  The  hard  and  soft  woods  of  West  Virginia. 

17.  The  prairies  of  Illinois. 

18.  Chicago  as  a  trade  center.    (McMurry,  pp.  63-73.) 

19.  Pineries  of  Michigan.    (McMurry,  pp.  73-85.) 

20.  Copper  mines  of  Michigan  and  lead  mines  of  Wisconsin. 

21.  The  wheat  fields  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas. 

22.  The  flouring  mills  of  Minneapolis. 

23.  The  corn  and  live  stock  of  Indiana. 
//.    Southern  Section. 

1.  The  rice  fields  of  the  Carolinas. 

2.  Semi-tropical  fruits  of  Florida. 

3.  Cotton  culture  in  Georgia  and  Mississippi. 

4.  The  Levee  at  New  Orleans. 

5.  A  sugar  plantation  in  Louisiana. 


Ill 


6.    A  cattle  ranch  in  Texas. 

III.    Plateau  Section. 

1.  Farming  by  irrigation. 

2.  A  mining  camp  in  Colorado. 

3.  Gold  and  silver  smelting  at  Denver. 

4.  A  trip  to  Yellowstone  Park. 

5.  Fruits  and  flowers  of  California. 

6.  Salmon  fishing  on  the  Columbia  river. 

Encourage  home  reading.  The  school  library  should  have  a  num- 
l)er  of  supplementary  readers,  geographies  and  aids  to  the  study  of 
this  subject. 

Books  suitable  for  the  use  of  students : 

Brigham. — From  Trail  to  Railway. 

Carpenter. — Europe. 

Carpenter. — How  the  World  is  Fed. 

€arpenter. — How  the  World  is  Clothed. 

Chamberlain. — How  We  are  Clothed. 

Chamberlain. — How  We  are  Sheltered. 

Roscheleau. — Great  American  Industries. 

IBooks  for  the  teacher. 

McMurry. — Special  Method  in  Geography. 
Mill. — Choice  of  Geographic  Books  for  Reference. 
Nichols. — Topics  in  Geography 

Geographic  Journals. 

The  Journal  of  Geography. 

The  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society. 
The  National  Geographic  Magazine. 

HISTORY. 

First  Half  Year. 

Text-book. — Montgomery's  Beginner's  American  History.  Note 
that  the  story  of  our  country  is  presented  in  this  book  by  giv- 
ing the  biographies  of  many  of  the  prominent  men  of  our  country. 
The  story  element  predominates  over  the  cause  and  effect  idea  of 
history.  The  principal  facts  in  the  history  of  a  colony,  or  of  a 
period,  are  grouped  about  the  life  of  some  prominent  man  of  the 
time.  Have  pupils  note  the  strong  traits  of  character  in  each  of 
these  men,  and  tell  why  each  was  selected.  Take  the  book  as  it  is 
and  do  not  try  to  supplement  it  too  much  except  by  material  of  the 
same  kind. 


112 

Train  in  topical  recitation  so  that  pupils  will  acquire  good  oral 
expression.  Have  some  of  the  stories  reproduced  in  writing. 
Teach  time,  place  and  reason  for  some  of  the  famous  sayings  quoted. 
Keep  main  incidents  of  lives  of  dilferent  men  before  the  class  by 
frequent  reviews.  Fix  definitely  in  mind  a  dozen  or  so  of  the  more 
important  dates.  Be  sure  that  pupils  get  the  meaning  of  all  new 
expressions.  Make  use  of  summaries  at  ends  of  chapters.  This  half 
year  is  the  introduction  to  the  more  serious  work  of  the  advanced 
book.  Create  keen  interest.  Get  pupils  to  read  other  books  on 
history. 

Second  Half  Year. 

Text-book — Leading  Facts  of  American  History  to  Chapter  IV. 

This  part  of  the  book  covers  the  story  of  the  discovery  of 
America,  its  explorations,  settlement  and  growth  of  the  colonies  up 
to  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  together  with  some  ac- 
count of  the  Indians,  their  manner  of  life  and  degree  of  civilization. 

Study  the  discoveries.  Show  conditions  in  Europe  leading  to  the 
voyage  of  Columbus.  Find  out  something  about  Venice  and  Genoa, 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Marco  Polo,  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator, 
and  Galileo.  Procure  copies  of  maps  of  that  day  and  show  ideas  of 
the  form  and  size  of  the  earth.  Use  globe  in  tracing  route  of  Colum- 
bus and  other  explorers. 

Study  claims  of  different  nations  to  parts  of  the  new  continent. 
Trace  voyages  and  discoveries  on  which  these  claims  were  founded. 
Give  special  attention  to  Spanish,  French  and  English  claims. 
Study  work  of  at  least  three  explorers  of  each  of  these  nations.  Ef- 
fect upon  Europe  of  the  discovery  of  America. 

The  Indians,  their  attitude  toward  the  white  men,  their  tribes, 
customs,  homes,  utensils,  food,  clothing,  weapons,  languages,  re- 
ligion and  ideas  of  property.  What  the  white  man  learned  from 
them  and  what  they  learned  from  the  white  man. 

The  Colonies.  Study  the  main  events  in  the  history  of  each. 
Take  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  as  types, 
tracing  their  development  quite  fully  the  others  can  then  be  dis- 
missed very  briefly.  Compare  colonies  settled  by  different  nations 
with  each  other. 

Compare  Virginia  and  Massachusetts  as  to  size,  religious  affairs, 
types  of  government,  character  of  colonists,  soil  and  products,  etc. 
These  are  two  typical  English  colonies  and  especially  important. 

The  different  modes  of  governing  the  colonies  at  different  times. 


113 


the  introduction  of  slavery,  the  representative  assembly,  Bacon's 
rebellion,  the  relations  of  the  colonies  to  each  other,  and  to  the 
mother  country.  Show  some  reasons  that  tended  to  keep  the 
colonies  apart,  others  that  tended  to  unite  them.  Point  out  the 
relation  of  the  English  Colonies  to  the  French  on  one  side  and  to 
the  Spanish  on  the  other. 

Take  up  more  fully  the  claims  of  France  to  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. Conflict  of  claims  between  French  and  English  together  with 
wars  resulting  from  them.  Show  that  these  wars  were  not  particu- 
larly American  but  the  American  side  of  contests  between  these  two 
countries  in  Europe  and  elsewhere.  Study  the  French  and  Indian 
War  more  intensively  because  it  was  the  final  contest  and  because 
of  the  effects  which  it  had  on  the  development  of  the  English 
colonies. 

Call  attention  to  the  internal  growth  of  the  colonies  during  this 
time,  their  increase  in  population,  in  property  and  wealth,  the  begin- 
ning of  commerce,  show  also  the  hardships  of  pioneer  life,  the  homes 
of  the  people,  education,  books  and  papers,  methods  of  travel,  send- 
ing of  mail,  growth  of  towns  and  cities,  dress,  food,  social  life  and 
customs  and  religious  practices. 

During  this  period,  as  indeed  in  all  times,  the  social  affairs  of  the 
people  are  of  as  great  importance  as  the  political  affairs.  Do  not 
over  emphasize  the  details  of  war,  but  lay  more  stress  on  the  victor- 
ies of  peace. 

SPELLIIVG. 

See  suggestions  under  sixth  grade. 

WRITIIVG. 

See  former  grade. 

EIGHTH  YEAR. 
LITERATURE. 

Books  three  and  four  should  be  completed  during  the  eighth 
grade.  It  is  very  probable  that  in  many  instances  pupils  might  not 
be  able  to  buy  the  two  books  during  the  year,  and  it  is  therefore 
suggested  that  the  teacher  make  some  arrangement  of  the  year's 
work  to  meet  this  situation  if  it  arises.  For  instance,  the  teacher 
might  have  the  pupils  complete  the  first  book  and  do  the  rest  of 
the  work  with  her  own  text-book,  reading  aloud  to  the  class  and 
allowing  the  members  of  the  class  to  read  to  each  other,  or  it  might 


114 


be  possible  that  the  class  might  buy  two  or  three  copies  by  general 
subscriptions  with  the  understanding  that  they  should  be  left  in  the 
school  library  at  the  end  of  the  school  year,  or  some  small  part  of 
the  library  fund  might  be  used  for  the  purchase  of  these  books 
which  could  be  used  in  succeeding  years.  Very  few  of  the  books 
that  are  put  into  the  school  libraries  have  greater  merit  for  such  a 
purpose  than  have  these.  During  this  year  especially  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  material  in  the  literature  books  be  used  as  a  basis  for 
the  composition  work,  which  is  a  part  of  the  work  in  literature  for 
this  grade. 

AGRICULTURE. 

See  suggestions  ui^der  seventh  grade. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Many  business  applications  and  transactions  are  introduced  in 
this  grade;  insurance,  stocks  and  bonds,  powers  and  roots,  various 
process  and  applications  of  measuring  are  presented  and  given 
thorough  consideration.  In  the  first  half  of  the  year  the  text  is 
completed  to  about  page  408. 

After  a  thorough  general  review  of  the  topics  presented  the  pre- 
ceding half  year,  the  text  deals  with  the  Metric  System,  foreign 
moneys,  and  introduces  a  few  principles  of  Algebra.  This  semester 
completes  the  book,  taking  pages  409  to  454,  inclusive. 

BOOKKEEPIKG. 

The  work  this  year  should  follow  the  adopted  text.  Pupils 
should  have  a  great  deal  of  practice  and  drill  in  all  the  practical 
and  useful  phases  of  the  subject;  for  instance,  in  the  rural 
schools  the  boys  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  accounts  of  some 
fields  of  corn  or  potatoes  exactly  as  the  events  and  facts  In  the  case 
exist,  so  as  to  show  the  net  loss  or  gain.  The  moral  value  of  this 
subject,  while  not  often  referred  to,  is,  in  fact,  very  high.  Any  per- 
son who  acquires  a  familiarity  with  a  good,  simple  system  of  keep- 
ing accounts  and  will  by  practice  form  the  habit  of  keeping  his  own 
personal  accounts,  is  taking  his  first  step  towards  the  habit  of 
thrift,  which  will  reinforce  and  strengthen  many  other  good  habits 
and  is  the  constant  foe  to  many  bad  ones.  Above  all  things,  however, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  bookkeeping  merely  as  subject  matter 
known,  has  very  little  value.  Its  value  far  more  than  other  sub- 
jects lies  in  some  application  of  it,  and  since  human  nature  is  such 
that  one  does  more  readily  things  that  are  easy  for  one  to  do,  the 


115 


teacher  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  final  value  of  Instruction  in 
this  subject  depends  largely  upon  enough  drill  to  give  the  pupil  a 
high  degree  of  skill  and  readiness  in  the  application  of  the  princi- 
ples of  the  subject. 

LANGUAGE  AKD  GRAMMAR, 

The  third  part  of  book  two  of  the  Modern  English  is  devoted  to 
a  few  lessons  on  composition.  The  subject  is,  of  course,  treated  in 
a  very  simple  and  elementary  way,  but  the  matter  given  can  be 
made  the  basis  of  some  very  profitable  instruction  to  the  class.  It 
is  suggested  that  the  first  three  months  or  so  of  the  year  be  given  to 
a  course  in  composition  along  the  line  given  by  the  text-book. 

The  aim  of  most  of  the  instruction  in  this  subject  up  to  this  time 
has  been  to  secure  skill  and  proficiency,  for  the  most  part  in  written 
language,  with  a  certain  amount  of  instruction  in  Grammar  itself, 
partly  incidental  and  partly  as  the  basis  for  the  language  work. 

Three  months  instruction  in  composition  given  in  the  first  part 
of  this  year  should  give  the  teacher  an  excellent  test  of  the  success 
of  the  previous  several  years'  work  in  English  and  would  suggest 
what  reviews  and  supplementary  instruction  in  Literature  and 
Grammar  may  be  most  profitably  given  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year.  It  is  thought  that  this  plan  will  be  a  better  one  than  to 
begin  the  year  by  a  review  of  the  preceding  parts  of  the  course  and 
to  devote  the  last  part  of  the  year  to  the  composition  work. 

In  cases  where  the  natural  capacity  of  the  pupils  and  the  excel- 
lence of  previous  instruction  have  resulted  in  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  literary  and  grammatical  principles  given  in  the  text-books 
and  in  a  satisfactory  proficiency  in  the  application  of  these  princi- 
ples, it  would  be  well  to  give  the  class  a  little  more  comprehensive 
and  exhaustive  drill  upon  Grammar  or  upon  Composition  or  both, 
based  upon  other  text-books  which  go  more  fully  into  the  princi- 
ples of  these  subjects. 

In  addition  to  the  subject  material  for  composition  work  given 
in  the  third  part  of  book  two,  the  teacher  might  well  do  quite  a 
little  of  this  kind  of  work  in  connection  with  the  work  in  literature, 
which  is  elsewhere  provided  for  in  the  course  of  study.  The  liter- 
ary selections  given  in  the  literature  texts  adopted  lare  of  high  liter- 
ary merit,  many  of  them  being  masterpieces  of  English  literature. 
It  is  generally  recognized  that  composition  work,  based  upon  lit- 
erature of  this  quality,  has  a  double  value.  It  not  only,  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject  matter,  tends  to  make  the  work  in  composi- 


116 


tion  itself  more  profitable,  but  also  the  composition  work,  if  rightly 
done,  tends  to  strengthen  the  impressions  of  the  literature  upon  the 
child's  mind  and  to  give  him  a  better  perception  of  its  literary- 
merit. 

HISTORY. 

First  half: — From  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  to  the  Civil 
"War.  Review  conditions  of  colonies  at  the  close  of  the  French  and 
Indian  "War  as  to  their  strength,  their  wealth,  their  military  knowl- 
edge and  skill.  Trace  the  causes  of  disagreement  with  the  mother 
country;  the  steps  leading  up  to  Revolution;  the  Continental  Con- 
gress; the  Declaration  of  Independence;  the  campaigns  and  inci- 
dents of  the  Revolution;  the  Articles  of  Conferation;  the  critic- 
al period  from  1781  to  1789;  formation  of  the  Constitution;  the 
establishment  of  our  national  government,  its  foreign  and  domestic 
policies,  tariff,  money,  mint,  treaties,  etc. ;  the  formation  of  political 
parties ;  the  events  leading  up  to  the  War  of  1812,  events  and  results 
of  that  war ;  theories  of  internal  improvements, — the  Erie  Canal  and 
the  National  Road;  the  United  States. banks;  public  lands;  settle- 
ment of  the  "Western  country;  the  growth  of  the  nation  and  the 
extension  of  territory  beginning  with  the  purchase  of  Louisiana, 
of  Florida,  the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  cession  at  the  close  of  the 
Mexican  war,  the  acquisition  of  Oregon,  the  Gadsden  purchase; 
the  rise  of  the  slavery  question;  nullification;  state  banks  and 
money;  the  "War  with  Mexico,  and  inventions  and  discoveries  of 
the  period. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  period  attention  will  naturally 
center  upon  the  increasing  bitterness  between  the  North  and  South 
over  slavery,  the  fugitive  slave  laws,  the  Civil  "War  in  Kansas;  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Act ;  the  Dred  Scott  Decision,  the  Lincoln-Douglas 
debates ;  John  Brown 's  raid ;  the  presidential  election  of  1860,  lead- 
ing up  to  the  secession  of  the  Southern  States  and  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  "War. 

Some  attention  ought  to  be  paid  to  the  development  of  litera- 
ture, especially  by  the  New  England  writers. 

Second  half  year. — From  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  to  the 
present.  Review  briefly  the  course  of  events  leading  up  to  the 
Civil  War.  Compare  the  strength  of  the  two  sections  as  to  popu- 
lation, wealth,  natural  resources,  military  training,  strategic  posi- 
tions. Show  attitude  of  the  border  states,  plans  of  campaign,  lines 
of  attack  and  defense,  and  blockade  of  the  Southern  ports.  Trace 
various  campaigns  noting  principal  leaders  and  successes  of  either 


117 


side;  trace  the  progress  of  the  war  on  the  sea;  the  final  great  cam- 
paigns ;  the  outcome  of  the  struggle ;  situation  in  the  North,  situation 
in  the  South.  Note  the  losses  of  life  and  property  of  the  war  and 
its  cost.  Show  the  condition  of  the  freed  negroes.  Call  attention 
to  the  plans  of  reconstruction  proposed,  the  readmission  of  the  se- 
ceded states,  the  amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and  the  end  of 
the  reconstruction  period. 

Following  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  is  the  period  of  national 
development.  It  is  charactized  by  great  expansion  in  industrial 
agencies,  manufactures  and  commerce.  The  period  is  a  very  com- 
plex one,  and  perhaps  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  teach  satisfactorily. 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  legislation.  The  main  topics  for  special 
■attention  are  the  laws  regarding  money  and  banking ;  the  successive 
tariff  enactments;  the  relations  of  labor  and  capital;  the  growth  of 
corporations  and  trusts  on  the  one  hand  and  of  labor  organizations 
on  the  other,  strikes,  boycotts,  lockouts,  etc. ;  great  increase  in  manu- 
factures ;  industrial  expositions ;  occupancy  of  public  lands ;  organi- 
sation and  admission  of  new  states;  rise  of  the  doctrine  of  conser- 
vation of  natural  resources ;  irrigation  of  arid  lands ;  establishment 
of  forest  reserves  and  reservation  of  water  power  sites ;  the  Spanish- 
American  War  and  the  new  position  of  the  United  States  among 
the  nations  of  the  world  as  a  result  of  it.  These  are  some  of  the 
subjects  which  must  be  treated. 

Teachers  will  doubtless  find  it  an  aid  in  presenting  the  work  in 
history  to  divide  it  into  periods  which  can  be  characterized  by  some 
general  statement.  Consult  the  Table  of  Contents  as  to  what  these 
divisions  are  in  the  text  used.  The  following  divisions  taken  from 
-Adams  &  Trent's  History  of  the  United  States  may  also  be  helpful: 

1492  to  1765. — Discovery  and  Settlement. 

1765  to  1789.— Revolution. 

1789  to  1825. — Organization  of  Political  Parties. 

1825  to  1850. — Spread  of  Democracy  and  Extension  of  Territory. 

1850  to  1861.— Eve  of  the  Civil  War. 

1861  to  1869. — Civil  War  and  Reconstruction. 

1869  to  •   Period  of  National  Development. 

Books  Suitable  for  School  Libraries. 

McMurry. — Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. — The  Macmillan 
■Company. 

Catherwood. — Heroes  of  the  Middle  West. — Ginn  &  Company. . 


118 


Eggleston. — Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure. — American 
Book  Company. 

Andrews. — Ten  Boys  on  the  Koad  from  Long  Ago. — Ginn  &  Co. 
Fiske. — The  War  of  Independence. — Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 
Elson. — Side  Lights  on  American  History. — The  Macmillan  Co. 
Guerber. — Story  of  the  Great  Republic. — American  Book  Co. 
Franklin. — Autobiography. — Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 
Hart. — Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution. — The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Judson. — The  Growth  of  the  American  Nation. — The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Coffin. — Boys  of  '76. — Harper  Brothers. 
Coffin. — Boys  of  '61. — Harper  Brothers. 

Caldwell. — American  History  Studies. — Ainsworth  &  Company. 
Fiske-Irving. — Washington  and  His  Country. — Ginn  &  Company. 

Books  on  American  History. 

For  teachers  who  have  the  time  and  inclination  to  read  more  wide- 
ly in  the  literature  of  American  History  the  following  volumes  will 
be  of  interest :  . 

Parkman. — Particularly,  The  Pioneers  of  New  France;  The 
Jesuits  in  North  America ;  La  Salle  and  the  Discoveries  of  the  West ; 
and  a  Half  Century  of  Conflict. — Little  Brown  &  Co. 

Fiske. — Discovery  of  America ;  The  Beginnings  of  New  England ; 
Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors ;  The  Critical  Period  of  American 
History. — Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Lodge. — ^Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America. — ^ 
Harper  Brothers. 

The  American  History  Series. — The  Colonial  Era ;  The  French 
War  and  the  Revolution;  The  Making  of  the  Nation;  The  Middle 
Period;  The  Civil  War  and  Constitution;  Reconstruction  and  the 
Constitution. — Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

McMaster. — History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States.  (7  Vols.) 
D.  Appleton  &  Company. 

Rhodes. — History  of  the  United  States,  (7  vols.).  Vols.  I-IV 
The  Macmillan  Company.   V-VII,  Harper  Bros. 

Schouler. — History  of  the  United  States.  (6  vols.)  Dodd,  Mead 
&  Co. 

The  American  Statesman  Series:  particuarly  the  volumes  on 
Alexander  Hamilton;  Thomas  Jefferson;  James  Madison;  Albert 


119 


Gallatin;  Daniel  Webster;  Henry  Clay  and  Abraham  Lincoln. — 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Andrews. — The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times. — Scribner's. 

Hart. — Source  Book  of  American  History. — The  Macmillan  Co. 

Sparks. — Expansion  of  the  American  People. — Scott,  Foresman 
&  Company. 

Eoosevelt. — Winning  of  the  West. — Putnam. 

Coneau. — Industrial  History  of  the  United  States. — The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Brigham. — Geographical  Influences  in  American  History. — Ginn 
&  Co. 

Channing. — Student's  History  of  the  United  States. — The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Jackson. — A  Century  of  Dishonor. — Roberts  Bros.  ^ 

GENEEAL  HISTOEY. 

(If  general  history  is  attempted  in  this  grade,  the  course  in  United 
States  history  should  be  begun  in  the  sixth  grade  and  completed  in 
the  seventh,  the  manner  of  presenting  it  being  simplified  because  of 
the  younger  age  of  the  pupils.) 

It  will  be  best  in  general  to  follow  the  order  of  subjects  as  pre- 
sented in  the  text  used.  The  same  general  suggestions  as  to  the 
subjects  to  be  emphasized  in  the  study  of  U.  S.  History  will  apply 
in  this  work.  Also  the  suggestions  as  to  the  teaching  of  the  history 
in  the  high  school  course.  Social,  industrial  and  economic  con- 
ditions are  as  important  as  the  progress  in  forms  of  government  and 
the  methods  of  warfare. 

The  manner  of  life  of  the  people,  their  homes,  dress,  social  diver- 
sions and  amusements,  family  life,  education,  literature,  art,  re- 
ligious beliefs  and  observances,  agriculture,  ownership  of  land,  agri- 
culture products,  slavery,  position  of  women,  manufactures  and  com- 
merce, all  these  topics  will  be  found  very  fruitful  and  will  well  re- 
pay investigation. 

Pupils  should  outline  lessons  and  recite  in  the  main  by  topics. 
Notebooks  may  be  kept  in  which  material  gathered  from  other 
sources  should  be  entered;  maps  should  be  studied  carefully  and 
important  events  fixed  definitely  both  in  place  and  time.  Study  the 
illustrations  in  the  book,  they  are  meant  to  aid  in  the  understanding 
of  the  text. 

Compare  one  nation  with  another  as  to  its  development  in  civili- 
zation and  note  the  constant  progress  of  civilization  toward  a  higher 


120 


state.  Trace  the  elements  of  our  own  civilization  which  have  come 
to  us  from  the  various  nations  of  the  past.  Show  in  what  way  the 
present-  is  better  than  the  past  and  what  we  may  learn  from  the 
past  of  value  to  the  present. 

CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  aims  in  teaching  civil  government  should  be  (1)  to  acquaint 
the  pupil  with  the  general  principles  of  our  government  in  order 
that  he  may  be  an  intelligent  citizen;  (2)  that  he  may  understand 
what  his  rights  are  and  the  duties  and  responsibilities  that  rest  upon 
him  as  a  citizen;  (3)  to  develop  a  high  ideal  of  citizenship  in  order 
that  he  may  serve  his  community  well  either  in  a  public  position,  or 
as  a  private  citizen;  (4)  to  inspire  a  desire  for  a  clean,  honest  and 
just  administration  of  government  so  that  the  equality  of  all  citizens 
in  their  legal  and  political  rights  may  be  maintained;  (5)  to  show 
the  value  of  civil  and  political  rights  by  tracing  the  long  and  tedious 
way  by  which  they  have  been  secured.  The  history  of  civil  liberty 
is  centuries  long  and  its  course  is  stained  by  the  blood  of  many 
patriots  and  martyrs.  We  ought  not  too  lightly  to  esteem  what 
they  have  bequeathed  to  us. 

These  aims  are  stated  in  very  general  terms  but  they  should  be 
presented  to  the  pupils  in  very  concrete  forms. 

The  main  emphasis  in  the  study  of  civil  government  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  should  be  upon  local  government  and  local  con- 
ditions. The  text-book  adopted  (Peterman's  Elements  of  Civil  Gov- 
ernment) begins  v^ith  the  family  as  "the  first  form  of  government 
with  which  the  child  comes  in  contact. ' '  Then  follow  succes- 
sively the  school,  the  civil  district,  the  county,  the  State,  and  the 
United  States.  This  order  of  topics  follows  the  principle  of  begin- 
ning with  that  which  is  nearest  at  hand  and  most  within  the  pupil 's 
experience,  and  proceeding  to  that  which  is  more  remote  and  less 
known. 

In  accordance  with  this  principle,  after  completing  the  first  six 
chapters,  classes  may  turn  to  the  supplement  and  take  up  the  study 
of  the  civil  government  of  West  Virginia.  This  will  give  a  con- 
crete example  of  one  state  government,  after  which  the  study  of 
the  state  in  general  (Chapts.  VII-X)  will  be  comparatively  easy. 
This  method  will  make  possible,  too,  many  comparisons  between  our 
own  state  and  others. 

In  studying  the  government  of  West  Virginia,  pupils  should  read 
and  study  the  state  constitution.    It  is  the  source  of  all  the  general 


121 


powers  of  the  state,  and  pupils  should  verify  statements  of  the  text 
by  referring  to  the  proper  section  of  the  constitution.  The  same 
suggestion  should  be  followed  when  taking  up  the  national  govern- 
ment in  chapter  eleven. 

History  and  civil  government  should  be  correlated.  The  two 
subjects  reinforce  each  other.  Pupils  should  also  pay  attention  to 
current  events  as  they  can  gain  considerable  insight  into  the  work- 
ings of  government  by  noting  what  is  taking  place  day  to  day  in 
making  laws  and  in  administering  them,  in  interpreting  them  in 
the  courts,  or  applying  them  to  the  affairs  of  the  nation  or  state. 

Teachers  should  emphasize  the  matters  of  local  government  as 
much  as  possible.  If  there  is  not  time  enough  to  teach  all  that  is 
indicated,  it  will  be  better  to  omit  some  of  the  details  of  the  national 
government.  As  thorough  a  study  as  possible  should  be  made  of  the 
civil  district  and  the  county.  In  incorporated  villages,  towns,  or 
cities,  the  departments  of  the  municipal  government  should  be  pre- 
sented and  studied. 

Make  the  subject  as  practical  as  possible.  Deal  especially  with 
the  duties  of  the  individual  citizen.  Emphasize  the  importance  of 
each  man's  right  to  vote,  and  that  each  man's  share  of  responsi- 
bility is  either  for  good  government  or  for  bad.  Show  that  each 
man  is  particularly  interested  in  that  form  of  government  which 
comes  nearest  to  him,  that  is,  the  town,  district,  or  county. 

Point  out  the  interest  of  each  citizen  in  good  roads;  sanitary 
homes;  the  conveniences  of  telephones;  rural  mail  delivery;  the 
suppression  of  contagious  diseases;  the  prevention  of  malaria,  ty- 
phoid fever  and  small-pox;  what  to  do  for  tuberculosis;  the  con- 
servation of  the  natural  resources  of  the  state  in  soil,  timber  and 
mineral  wealth;  why  he  should  support  the  school  and  the  church; 
his  relations  to  his  neighbors,  and  the  need  for  co-operating  with 
his  neighbors  to  make  the  community  not  only  safe  for  life  and 
property,  but  a  desirable  one  to  live  in  because  of  its  conveniences 
and  its  character.  These  things  are  really  more  important  than 
many  matters  of  detail  of  either  the  state  or  national  government. 

The  work  of  the  year  may  be  divided  by  terms  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows: 

First  term.  Chapters  I-YI,  and  The  History  and  Government  of 
West  Virginia,  pp.  225-276  inclusive. 

Second  term.  Chapters  VII-XIII,  with  careful  study  of  those 
sections  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution  as  bear  upon  the  subjects  treated. 

Third  term.  Chapters  XIV-XXII,  with  sections  of  the  U.  S. 
Constitution. 


122 


STATE  HISTORY. 

It  will  be  found  rather  difficult  to  make  a  separate  study  of  the 
history  of  the  state.  Much  of  it  will  be  gained  in  the  study  of  the 
state  geography,  and  of  its  civil  government.  If  there  are  one  or 
two  of  the  leading  state  histories  in  the  school  library  they  may  be 
assigned  to  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  for  home  reading.  If  there 
is  not  sufficient  time  for  reading  the  whole  book,  special  parts  of  it 
may  be  assigned  for  reading  and  report  to  the  classes,  either  with  the 
class  in  U.  S.  History,  or  with  the  class  in  civil  government.  Or 
the  teacher  may,  present  the  main  points  either  in  reading  to  the 
class  or  in  talks. 

Reference  books  in  civil  government : 

Paul  S.  Reinsch. — The  Young  Citizen  Reader. — Benj.  H.  Sanborn 
Co. 

Arthur  William  Dunn. — The  Community  and  the  Citizen. — D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co. 

S.  E.  Forman. — Essentials  in  Civil  Government. — American  Book 
Co. 

Francis  Gulick  Jewett. — Town  and  City. — Ginn  &  Company. 
John  Fiske. — Civil  Government  in  the  U.  S. — Houghton  Mifflin 
&  Co. 

W.  W.  Willoughby. — Rights  and  Duties  of  American  Citizen- 
ship.— American  Book  Co. 
R.  L.  Ashley. — American  Government. — The  Macmillan  Co. 
W.  H.  Allen. — Civics  and  Health. — Ginn  &  Company. 
For  other  books  on  this  subject  see  list  under  High  School  Civics. 

Reference  Books  in  State  History  : 

Virgil  A.  Lewis. — History  and  Government  of  West  Virginia, 
(adopted  text). — American  Book  Company. 

Virgil  A.  Lewis. — History  of  West  Virginia. — Hubbard  Bros., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Fast  &  Maxwell. — The  History  and  Government  of  West  Vir- 
ginia.— Acme  Pub.  Co.,  Morgantown. 

Granville  Davisson  Hall. — The  Rending  of  Virginia. — Mayer  & 
Miller,  Chicago. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

Five  times  a  week.  The  Human  Physiology  should  be  completed. 
Topics  that  are  already  understood  from  the  lessons  of  the  two 
Primers  should  be  given  less  time,  otherwise  the  book  can  not  be 


completed.  A  fairly  strong  drill  on  anatomy  and  physiology,  as 
given  in  the  text-book,  should  be  required.  It  is  very  desirable  that 
the  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  some  more  comprehensive  texts 
on  the  subject. 

Pupils  from  the  seventh  grade  may  be  allowed  to  take  this 
work,  thus  eliminating  physiology  from  this  grade  every  other  year. 

SPELLING. 

The  completion  of  the  text-book  in  the  seventh  year  should  not 
suggest  that  spelling  should  be  dropped  from  the  course  of  study. 
On  the  other  hand  the  teacher  should  be  certain  that  every  eighth 
grade  pupil  can  spell  accurately  most  of  the  practical  words  in  the 
common  school  text-books,  and  most  words  within  the  experience  of 
of  the  eighth  grade  pupil.  Drill  upon  topical  lists  of  words,  word 
analysis  involving  Latin  andGreek  roots,  prefixes  and  suffixes,  defini- 
tion of  words,  and  the  proper  use  of  the  dictionary. 

WRITING, 

See  first  grade. 

MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  COUNTRY  AND  VILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 

Manual  training  affords  opportunity  to  the  school  boy  to  develop 
the  constructive  side  of  his  nature.  It  is  natural  to  want  to  make 
things,  to  do  things  with  the  hands.  Construction  is  one  of  the 
forms  of  expression  common  to  all.  Its  early  development  and  its 
prominence  are  seen  in  the  character  of  the  plays  of  the  child.  Man- 
ual training  takes  advantage  of  this  instinct  of  childhood  and  ap- 
plies it  to  problems  more  advanced  than  those  of  childhood's  games 
and  plays. 

While  it  is  perhaps  impossible  to  undertake  any  large  amount  of 
manual  training  in  village  and  country  schools  because  of  lack  of 
space  and  equipment,  and  of  preparation  by  the  teacher  to  give  in- 
struction in  it,  still,  some  things  can  be  done,  and  it  is  the  purpose  of 
this  paragraph  to  make  some  suggestions  as  to  what  they  are. 

The  actual  necessities  for  manual  training  work  in  the  small 
school  are  not  many.  They  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  to  be  provided  for.  In  a  one-room  country  school, 
one  work  bench  would  perhaps  suffice.  This  can  be  purchased  at  a 
cost  of  from  $8.00  up.  This  bench  may  be  set  up  in  part  of  the 
cloak  hall,  or  in  some  part  of  the  school  room  where  there  is  good 
light,  if  the  space  can  be  spared.    If  there  is  a  suitable  basement 


124 


room  which  can  be  used  it  will  perhaps  be  best  as  it  will  be  easier 
then  to  keep  the  school  room  clean.  A  good  warm  shed  or  out- 
building might  be  used. 

The  following  equipment  would  be  sufficient  for  a  great  variety 
of  work : 

1  work  bench  with  vise  1  spoke  shave,  Stanley  No.  54. 

1  24  in.,  8  point  cross  cut  saw    1  Jack  plane,  Stanley  No.  5. 
1  24  in.,  7  point  rip  saw.  1  8  in.  smooth  plane  Stanley 

1  brace  and      in.,  ^  in.,  %  in.  No.  3. 

and  1  in.  bits.  1  Maydole  hammer. 

1  10  in.  Jackson  or  Diston  back    1  6  in.  try-square. 

saw.  1  6  in.  marking  guage. 

1  sloyd  knife.  1  screw  driver. 

1  foot  rule.  1  combination  India  oilstone. 

1  2-foot,  four-fold  rule.  1  bench  hook. 

1  set  socket  firmer  chisels,  i/4         1  bench  brush. 

1/^  in.,  %  in.  and  1  in. 

The  following  additional  tools  will  be  found  useful  in  some 
kinds  of  work  where  Boards  of  Education  are  willing  to  procure 
them : 

1  set  compasses.  1  pair  pliers. 

1  turning  saw.  1  compass  saw. 

1  saw  set.  1  hatchet. 

1  mallet.  1  countersink. 

1  nail  set.  1  cabinet  scraper. 

1  8  in.  flat  file.  1  3-cornered  file. 

1  half-round  wood  rasp.  1  set  gouges,  i/4         %  ^^-7 

1  set  Morse  twist  drill  bits  %  in.,  1  in. 

Vs  in-j  %  in.,  and  %  in. 
The  cost  of  this  equipment,  exclusive  of  the  additional  list  of 

tools,  need  not  exceed  $25.00.  The  cost  may  be  considerably  les- 
sened by  getting  some  local  carpenter  to  make  the  work  bench  and 
set  the  vise.  Perhaps  some  patron  of  the  school  who  is  interested 
in  manual  training  would  donate  the  equipment. 

One  bench  and  set  of  tools  will  be  sufficient  for  five  boys  working 
three  hours  per  week  each,  or  for  seven  boys  working  two  hours 
per  week  each.  It  is  understood  that  this  work  would  be  done  out- 
side of  the  regular  school  day.  The  hours  available  are  from  8 :00 
to  9  :00  a.  m.,  12  :00  to  1 :00  p.  m.  and  4 :00  to  5  :00  p.  m. 

Aside  from  certain  exercise  work  which  should  be  done  at  first  to 
familiarize  the  pupils  with  the  use  and  care  of  the  tools,  the  follow- 
ing are  suggested  as  some  of  the  articles  which  pupils  may  make. 

Seventh  Grade  Models: 

Bread  board,  stirring  paddle,  butter  stirrer,  key  rack,  milking 


125 


stool,  window  stick,  coat  hanger,  whisk  broom  holder,  roller 
towel  rack,  bird  house,  windmill  or  weather  vane,  blotter  pad,  iron- 
ing board,  shoe  blacking  cabinet,  drawing  board  and  tee-square,  hat 
rack,  bread  box,  pen  tray. 

Eighth  Grade  models. 

Sled,  window  box,  book  shelf,  book  rack,  wall  brackets  and  shelf, 
umbrella  rack,  sleeve  board,  tool  box,  trestle  or  saw  horse,  saw 
buck,  wagon  jack,  single  tree,  snow  plow,  chicken  coop,  egg  tester 
hammer  handle,  hatchet  handle,  garden  gate. 

The  material  to  work  with  can  usually  be  found  at  home,  or  pro- 
cured from  some  near  by  dealer  in  lumber.  When  the  pupil  has 
determined  the  article  which  he  intends  to  make  he  should  select  the 
kind  of  lumber  that  he  will  use  and  make  out  a  bill  specifying  the 
amount  and  cost  of  his  lumber,  nails,  screws  and  finishing.  A  very 
careful  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  complete  article  should  first  be 
made. 

The  actual  bench  or  shop  work  on  any  model  should  be  preceded 
by  making  a  working  drawing  of  it.  To  do  this  the  pupil  must  have 
had  some  instruction  in  mechanical  drawing,  and  for  that  he  must 
depend  upon  the  teacher.  Should  he  not  be  able  to  construct  the 
drawing,  he  should  make  a  detailed  written  description  of  the 
model,  noting  all  of  the  separate  pieces  needed  for  his  work  and  giv- 
ing exact  measurements  for  each. 

The  shop  work  should  be  accompanied  by  a  study  of  the  different 
kinds  of  materials  used,  where  it  is  obtained,  how  it  is  prepared, 
what  are  its  general  uses  and  why  it  is  particularly  fitted  for  such 
uses.  In  this  connection  make  a  study  of  trees — their  growth,  dis- 
tribution, classification,  characteristics  and  use. 

Definite  instruction  should  also  be  given  in  the  care  and  use  of 
tools. 

DOMESTIC    ART    AND   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE    IN    COUNTRY  AND 

TILLAGE  SCHOOLS. 

"What  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  possibility  of  carrying 
on  manual  training  in  the  country  and  village  schools  will  apply 
as  well  to  the  subjects  of  domestic  art  and  domestic  science.  The 
chief  difficulties  in  either  case  are  the  necessary  space  and  equip- 
ment, even  when  the  teacher  is  prepared  to  handle  the  subjects.  But 
in  the  hope  that  among  the  teachers  of  the  state  are  some  "pioneer 


126 


souls  who  blaze  their  paths  where  highways  never  ran,"  certain 
suggestions  are  here  offered.  The  teacher  who  is  prepared  for  such 
work  and  who  wants  to  do  it,  in  either  course"  will  find  a  way  or 
make  it. ' ' 

Sewing. 

But  little  equipment  is  needed  for  work  in  sewing.  For  this 
reason  it  can  be  provided  for  much  easier  than  cooking.  Possibly 
all  that  is  needed  can  be  brought  from  home  by  the  girls  who  are 
taking  the  work.  If  not,  it  can  be  procured  at  very  slight  cost. 
This  of  course  refers  to  hand  work.  Should  the  work  continue 
through  more  than  one  year  and  it  becomes  desirable  to  use  the 
sewing  miachine,  that  part  of  the  work  can  be  done  at  the  home. 
The  instruction  as  to  use  and  care  of  the  machine  should  be  given 
in  the  school. 

Each  pupil  should  provide  herself  with  a  pin  cushion  and  pins, 
thimbles,  needles,  scissors,  tape  measure  and  the  necessary  cloth. 

The  first  lessons  should  give  attention  to  the  correct  position  of 
the  body,  method  of  holding  the  cloth,  use  of  the  thimble,  threading 
the  needle,  knotting  the  thread,  holding  the  scissors,  exactness 
in  measuring,  etc.    This  is  preliminary  work. 

The  class  should  take  up  the  different  kinds  of  stitches  generally 
used;  such  as,  basting,  back  stitching,  over  casting,  hemming,  and 
running.  These  should  first  be  treated  as  exercises,  but  as  soon 
as  mastered  may  be  applied  in  making  various  articles,  as  tea  towels, 
dust  cloths,  aprons,  napkins,  doll  dresses,  sewing  bags,  pin 
cushions,  iron  holders. 

After  these  stitches  have  been  learned,  pupils  should  take  up 
continuous  seams  and  apply  to  useful  articles  about  the  home  and 
to  some  of  the  simple  garments. 

This  may  be  followed  by  exercises  on  mending,  patching,  and 
darning.  The  home  will  perhaps  furnish  all  work  necessary  in  any 
one  of  these. 

Fancy  or  ornamental  stitching  may  now  be  taught  such  as  cat 
stitch,  feather  stitching  and  hem  stitching.  Exercises:  table  linen, 
turn-over  collars,  belts,  aprons,  etc. 

Drafting  patterns  for  wearing  apparel,  making  garments  from 
patterns  drafted,  or  from  patterns  purchased  at  the  store ;  as 
kimono,  underwear,  corset  covers,  plain  shirt  waists. 

Button  holes,  sewing  on  buttons,  hook  and  eye  fastenings,  cover- 
ing buttons,  etc. 


127 


This  work  may  be  extended  to  cover  two  years  time  by  increas- 
ing the  number  of  articles  made  under  each  of  the  divisions  noted 
above.  But  it  is  best  not  to  try  too  many  articles.  The  aim  should 
be  quality  of  work  rather  than  quantity.  Poor,  careless  work  is  of 
no  value. 

Additional  work  in  the  second  year  may  include  instruction  on 
the  different  kinds  of  cloths,  how  they  are  made,  their  adaptability 
tc  various  uses,  and  the  relative  cost;  how  to  preserve  the  color 
in  cloth,  dyeing  and  bleaching;  laundering,  the  kinds  of  cloth  that 
can  be  laundered,  the  effect  of  soap ;  hard  and  soft  water  for 
laundry  uses;  boiling,  bluing,  starching,  ironing;  the  care  of  cloth- 
ing, brushing,  pressing,  removal  of  grease  spots  and  stains,  pack- 
ing away  clothing  for  summer  or  winter  and  how  to  protect  it 
against  moths  and  other  household  pests.  Any  or  all  of  these  may 
be  taken  up  if  time  and  opportunity  permit.  Some  good  manual 
on  sewing  will  be  of  great  help  to  the  teacher. 

Cooking. 

When  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  sewing  should  be  given  in  the  seventh 
grade  and  cooking  in  the  eighth  grade. 

If  a  separate  room  can  be  had  for  use  it  will  be  best ;  if  not,  some 
cooking  may  be  done  by  means  of  a  gasoline  stove,  an  oil  stove, 
or  on  a. gas  hot-plate.  A  two  burner  hot-plate  and  a  small  oven  or 
baker  will  answer  most  requirements. 

A  good  size  store  box  can  be  made  to  serve  for  a  table  and  by 
having  a  shelf  or  two  made  in  it  and  a  curtain  for  the  front  it 
can  be  made  a  cupboard  to  hold  utensils  when  not  in  use.  This  is 
a  rather  primitive  equipment,  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose  if  noth- 
ing better  can  be  had.  Where  possible  to  obtain  a  separate  room 
for  the  work  it  will  of  course  be  best  to  do  so.  Time  outside  of 
regular  school  hours  would  best  be  used  for  this  work. 

The  necessary  utensils  are : 

1  measuring  cup  1  dish  pan 

1  tablespoon  1  rinsing  pan 

1  paring  knife  1  strainer 

2  teaspoons  1  plate 
1  case  knife  1  bowl. 
1  stew-pan  1  skillet 

1  kettle  with  lid  1  granite  pan 

1  water  bucket 


128 


1  baking  cup 
1  wooden  spoon 
1  baking  pan 


1  dipping  cup 
1  spatula 
1  pie  pan 


tea  towels  and  dish  cloths. 

These  are  not  expensive,  many  of  them  might  be  contributed 
by  pupils  taking  the  work.  If  other  utensils  are  needed  occasion- 
ally they  can  probably  be  secured  from  the  homes  of  some  of  the 
pupils. 

Work  in  this  department  should  include  a  study  of  the  theory 
of  foods  as  well  as  the  practical  work  of  cooking.  The  physiology 
will  furnish  a  classification  of  foods.  Study  starches  and  sugars; 
fats  and  oils ;  animal  foods ;  mineral  salts  and  water. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  to  use  the  scales  in  the  kitchen,  and  all 
groceries  and  supplies  for  the  home  should  be  checked  as  to  weight. 
Teach  how  to  care  for  food  and  supplies,  and  how  to  store  foods 
during  the  winter  season.  Some  of  this  work  would  correlate  with 
the  work  in  agriculture.  Have  pupils  give  special  attention  to  the 
costs  of  each  article  used  in  the  course. 


1.  Preliminary  lessons  should  include  instruction  in  care  of 
kitchen  equipment,  arrangement  of  utensils  and  tables  of  measure- 
ments used  in  the  work. 

2.  Potatoes — their  composition  and  value  as  a  food;  methods 
of  cooking.  Exercise — ^baked,  creamed  or  mashed. 

3.  Cereals. — their  source  and  composition;  manufacture;  var- 
ieties and  cost ;  methods  of  cooking ;  degree  of  heat  used  in  cooking 
with  water.  Exercise — oat-meal,  corn-meal,  graham  mush,  cracked 
wheat,  rice.  Prepared  breakfast  foods;  their  food'  values;  cost; 
how  to  serve. 

4.  Starch  foods — starches  as  a  source  of  energy;  the  effect  of 
heat  in  cooking;  degree  of  heat  to  be  used.  Exercise — cornstarch 
pudding;  macaroni;  tapioca. 

5.  Vegetables  containing  sugar — structure  and  composition; 
value  as  food  of  raw  and  cooked  vegetables;  methods  of  cooking. 
Exercise — cook  turnips,  cabbage  or  onions,  make  vegetable  salads, 
using  lettuce,  celery  and  other  vegetables.  Prepare  salad  dressing. 
Make  creamed  cauliflower  or  asparagus. 

6.  Fruits — classify;  discuss  food  values;  effect  of  heat  and 
acid;  preparation  of  dried  fruits;  methods  of  cooking  and  serving. 


Lessons  suggested  for  one  year's  course. 


129 


Exercise — cook  apples  or  pears;  cranberries;  and  some  dried  fruits, 
such  as  peaches,  prunes  or  dried  apples. 

7.  Sugars — kinds,  source  and  manufacture ;  relation  of  sugars 
and  starches ;  value  as  food ;  effect  of  heat  and  acids  of  fruits. 
Exercise — cooked  fruits  containing  sugar ;  make  candy ;  fudge ; 
taffy.    A  good  lesson  for  the  Christmas  season. 

8.  ilJ^^s— composition  and  value  as  food ;  effect  of  heat  in  cook- 
ing ;  a  substitute  for  meat.  Exercise — soft  and  hard  cooked  eggs ; 
poached  eggs  and  omelet. 

9.  Milk — composition ;  care ;  effect  of  heat ;  value  as  food. 
Exercise — use  in  combination  to  make  soups,  custards,  dressings, 
cocoa,  etc. 

10.  Meat — Structure  and  composition ;  value  as  a  food ;  kinds 
of  meat ;  and  principal  cuts  with  relative  costs ;  care  of  meat ;  effect 
of  heat  in  cooking.  ^Jxem'se— Broiling ;  stewing,  and  baking; 
make  meat  soups. 

11.  Beans  and  peas — composition  and  food  values ;  methods  of 
cooking.    Exercise — bake  beans,  cream  peas. 

12.  Use  of  left-overs — teach  how  to  care  for  articles  left  over 
after  meal  and  how  to  use  them  again  in  preparing  other  dishes. 
Review  different  classes  of  foods  and  methods  of  cooking. 

EXCERPTS  FROM  THE  SCHOOL  LAW. 

Sec.  79.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  state  superintendent  of  free 
schools  to  prepare  and  distribute  a  manual  containing  the  courses 
of  study  prescribed  by  the  committee  on  course  of  study  and 
such  other  matter  as  may  seem  necessary  to  enable  teachers  to 
carry  out  the  said  courses  of  study,  and  his  further  duty  to  see 
that  the  teachers  in  all  the  various  schools  follow  the  course  of 
study  so  prescribed ;  he  shall  also  provide  for  the  examination 
and  graduation  of  pupils  who  satisfactorily  complete  the  said 
course  of  study,  and  shall  issue  diplomas  thereto. 

Sec.  131.  The  state  board  of  education  shall  perform  the  duties 
heretofore  performed  by  the  state  board  of  examiners  as  herein 
provided,  and  in  addition  thereto,  they  shall  constitute  a  committee 
on  course  of  study  and  as  such  committee,  shall  prescribe  a  course 
of  study  for  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  including  the  district 
schools,  and  define  the  relations  that  each  shall  bear  to  the  others. 


